<p>Benicia Capitol State Historic Park is a state park in Benicia, California, United States. The park is dedicated to Californias third capitol building, where the California State Legislature convened from February 3, 1853, to February 24, 1854, when they voted to move the state capital to Sacramento. It is the only pre-Sacramento capitol that remains. The park includes the Fischer-Hanlon House, an early Benicia building that was moved to the property and converted into a home in 1858, after the legislature departed. Benicia Capitol State Historic Park just off the citys main street also includes a carriage house, workers&#39; quarters and sculptured gardens.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following large complaints by state legislators of inadequate furniture and sleeping quarters in Vallejo, California in early 1853, the Legislature, with the consent of Governor John Bigler, relocated the state capital to nearby Benicia that same year. The Legislature convened in the Benicia City Hall for a little more than a year, when again complaints over poor weather conditions, inadequate and uncomfortable sleeping quarters, and "the insecure condition of the public archives" arose in January 1854.</p><br>
<p>After a proposal by Sacramento to use the Sacramento County Courthouse free of charge as a capitol building, the Assembly and Senate passed an enabling act, voiding all previous legislation, to move the state capital to its new location upriver in Sacramento. On February 25, 1854, Governor Bigler signed the act into law, moving the capital to its current location. The Legislature and governor climbed aboard the steamship Wilson G. Hunt to take up its new quarters. "So much opposed to the removal were the good people of Benicia," the Sacramento Union reported, "that the owners of the wharves, it is stated, refused to permit the steamer... to land to take on the legislative furniture, unless she would pay $500." This request was refused and the furniture was shipped from a different wharf.</p><br>
<p>The Greek Revival-Palladian building was listed as a California State Historic Landmark on January 11, 1935. The National Register of Historic Places placed the Benicia capitol on the federal list on February 12, 1971.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The original building has been restored with reconstructed period furnishings and exhibits. The interior includes a reconstruction of the building&#39;s original floor with ponderosa pine. The desks, four of which are from the 1850s or earlier, are furnished with a candlestick, a 19th-century newspaper, a quill pen, blotting sand, a spitoon, and a top hat.</p><br>
<p>The historic park is located at 115 West G Street in Benicia, a city in the northern San Francisco Bay Area between San Pablo Bay and Suisun Bay.</p><br>
<p>On February 16, 2000, the California State Legislature met in the old Capitol in a symbolic session to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Legislature&#39;s first meeting.</p><br>
<h2>Proposed for closure</h2><br>
<p>The Benicia Capitol State Historic Park was one of the 48 California state parks proposed for closure in January 2008 by Californias Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger as part of a deficit reduction program, since rescinded following public outcry. It also was placed on the Governors list of two hundred parks to close in fall of 2009 in response to the ongoing budget crisis and was on Jerry Brown&#39;s 2011 list of 70 proposed state park closures in the continuing budget crises.</p><br>
<p>In March 2013, then-Director of California Department of Parks and Recreation, Anthony L. Jackson, announced that no state parks would close during his tenure and that he had "done away with park closures."</p><br>
<p>Former_California_capitol_2022-04-17_1723_2.jpgFrom the southwest</p><br>
<p>Former_California_capitol_2022-04-17_1723_3.jpgFront portico</p><br>
<p>Former_California_capitol_2022-04-17_1723_5.jpgFrom the southeast</p><br>
<p>Former_California_capitol_sign_2022-04-17_1723_2.jpgPark sign</p><br>
<p>Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park was a historic building with surrounding land in Chico, California, United States. It is listed as a California Historical Landmark #329 under the name "Rancho Chico And Bidwell Adobe" in 1939; and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places under the name "Bidwell Mansion" on March 24, 1972. On December 11, 2024, the building was destroyed in a fire.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Bidwell Mansion was the home of General John Bidwell and Annie Bidwell from late 1868 until 1900, when Gen. Bidwell died. Annie continued to live there until her death in 1918. John Bidwell began construction of the mansion on his Rancho del Arroyo Chico in 1865, during his courtship of Annie Ellicott Kennedy. After their marriage in 1868, the three-story, 26-room Victorian house became the social and cultural center of the upper Sacramento Valley. The mansion was a $60,000 project, and was finished in May 1868.</p><br>
<p>When constructed, Bidwell Mansion featured modern plumbing, gas lighting and water systems. The three-story brick structure was built in an informally romantic version of the Italianate style. It also had aspects of the Italian Villa and Octagon house types present. The building&#39;s exterior was finished with a pink tinted plaster.</p><br>
<p>From 1925 to 1935, Bidwell Mansion served as a dormitory for Chico State Teachers College female students. The mansion was later dubbed "Bidwell Hall" and housed the art and home economics departments.</p><br>
<p>The state of California acquired the site in 1964.</p><br>
<p>Some of the interior scenes from the film The Thin Man (1934) were shot inside the mansion.</p><br>
<h3>Fire and destruction</h3><br>
<p>In the early morning on December 11, 2024, a fire swept the mansion. It was reported that the top tower collapsed at 4:05 a.m. Arson was determined as the cause of the fire. The mansion had been closed for renovations since early 2024, with plans to reopen in March 2025. No injuries were reported.</p><br>
<p>The Espada Acequia, or Piedras Creek Aqueduct, was built by Franciscan friars in 1731 in what is now San Antonio, Texas, United States. It was built to supply irrigation water to the lands near Mission San Francisco de la Espada, today part of San Antonio Missions National Historical Park. The acequia is still in use today and is an National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark and a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Irrigation system</h2><br>
<p>Mission Espada&#39;s acequia (irrigation) system can still be seen today. The main ditch, or acequia madre, continues to carry water to the mission and its former farmlands. This water is still used by residents living on these neighboring lands.</p><br>
<p>The initial survival of a new mission depended upon the planting and harvesting of crops. In south central Texas, intermittent rainfall and the need for a reliable water source made the design and installation of an acequia system a high priority. Irrigation was so important to Spanish colonial settlers that they measured cropland in suertes -the amount of land that could be watered in one day.</p><br>
<p>The use of acequias was originally brought to the arid regions of Spain by the Romans and the Moors. When Franciscan missionaries arrived in the desert Southwest they found the system worked well in the hot, dry environment. In some areas, like New Mexico, it blended in easily with the irrigation system already in use by the Puebloan Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>In order to distribute water to the missions along the San Antonio River, Franciscan missionaries oversaw the construction of seven gravity-flow ditches, dams, and at least one aqueduct—a 15 mi network that irrigated approximately 3,500 acre of land. The acequia not only conducted potable water and irrigation, but also powered a mill.</p><br>
<p>Mission Espada has survived from its beginnings to the present day as a community center that still supports a Catholic parish and religious education, however a school originally opened by the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament was closed in 1967.</p><br>
<p>Terrace Hill, also known as Hubbell Mansion, Benjamin F. Allen House or the Iowa Governors Mansion, is the official residence of the governor of Iowa, United States. Located at 2300 Grand Avenue in Des Moines, it is an example of Second Empire architecture. The home measures 18,000 square feet . It sits on a hill overlooking downtown Des Moines, and has a 90 ft tower that offers a commanding view of the city. The buildings steeply pitched mansard roof, open verandas, long and narrow and frequently paired windows, and bracketed eaves give this house an irreplaceable design. The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill was built by Benjamin Franklin Allen, the first millionaire in Iowa, as a home for his family. The architect for this project was William Boyington, a popular Chicago architect. Construction began in 1866, and was finished in 1869. The total cost of the project was $250,000 for the Mansion, the Carriage House, the original furnishings, and about 30 acres (120,000 m) of land. The house had very modern features for its time, which included hot and cold running water, indoor restrooms, an elevator, and gas lights.</p><br>
<p>When the house was first built, it was on the western edge of Des Moines. However, the city expanded westward. As a result, Terrace Hill is now nearly in the center of the city.</p><br>
<p>In 1884 the mansion was bought by local Des Moines businessman F.M. Hubbell. The mansion was purchased for $60,000 from Benjamin Franklin Allen.</p><br>
<p>From the time Iowa became a state in 1846 until 1947, no official residence was provided for the governor aside from Governor William L. Harding (1917–1921). In 1947 Iowa purchased an old colonial style home to serve as the residence for the governor, but by 1970, a new home was needed to serve the needs of the governor and the state to host visiting dignitaries. At first, the Iowa government considered building a new home to serve as the governor&#39;s residence. The Hubbell family—the owners of Terrace Hill—then offered the home to the state for use as a residence for the governor and his family. In the fall of 1976, Robert D. Ray became the first governor to use Terrace Hill as his residence when he moved there with his wife Billie Ray and their three daughters. Governors Terry Branstad (1983–1999, 2011–2017), Tom Vilsack (1999–2007), Chet Culver (2007–2011), and Kim Reynolds (2017–present) have occupied Terrace Hill since then.</p><br>
<h2>The Governor&#39;s Home</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill is located at 2300 Grand Avenue, south of Interstate 235. Most visitors stop first at the Carriage House, which is located near the house. Nowadays the building is used as a reception area for most visitors who arrive to tour the home. It also contains permanent and unique changing exhibits – such as a permanent display on the previous owners of the house, the Hubbell family.</p><br>
<h3>The First Floor</h3><br>
<p>The first floor of Terrace Hill is a formal area. The rooms on the first floor were used often for reception of important guests, a tradition which continues.</p><br>
<p>The Vestibule is the entry area to the mansion. Formerly, a servant would greet guests in the Vestibule. They would enter through two sets of doors there that weigh more than 200 pounds (90 kg) each.</p><br>
<p>From there, guests would be taken to the Reception Room. Guests would wait while their presence was announced to the owners, and the host or hostess would greet them in that room.</p><br>
<p>Across the hall is the Drawing Room. At one time it was used for weddings and funerals of the home&#39;s residents. Now the room is used for important events – which include entertaining of foreign dignitaries. The room also features a 7.5 foot (2.3 m) crystal chandelier, and handcarved, laminated, rosewood Belter furniture.</p><br>
<p>The Music Room was previously an entertainment room. Young women would usually play music in this room. The room features a Steinway "Music Room Grand" from 1869 – the same year the house was completed.</p><br>
<p>The Dining Room was used for formal dinners by the previous owners of the home. Today the Dining Room continues to be used for state dinners and receptions. Food served in the dining room is prepared in the kitchen in the basement.</p><br>
<p>The Library was another important room on the first floor. It served originally as the gathering place for the men of the home, and as a storage place for knowledge. The room contains several interesting items, which include F. M. Hubbells leather chair. Because he was just over 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, the chair sits close to the floor to accommodate him. There is also a portable gentlemans "desk", and a partners&#39; table, where two people could work at once.</p><br>
<p>The Sitting Room was the family room during earlier times.</p><br>
<p>All of these rooms are connected by the Main Hall. The ceilings in the hall are 14.5 feet (4.4 m) tall. The Main Hall has carpets by Wilton. There are also a number of interesting portraits.</p><br>
<p>Outside there is a large porch that overlooks the downtown area. It is still used occasionally for parties.</p><br>
<h3>The Second Floor</h3><br>
<p>At the end of the Main Hall on the First Floor, there is a grand staircase that leads up to the Second Floor, with a landing in between.</p><br>
<p>At the landing between the First and Second Floors, there is a stained glass window. The window is often described as "garden in glass" and measures 9 by 13 feet (3 by 4 m). This window colors the landing and part of the staircase with colorful light. The window was added by F. M. Hubbell between 1884 and 1890.</p><br>
<p>After the landing, the staircase divides into two approaches to the Second Floor. Originally the Second Floor served as the bedrooms for most of the family. Now, the formal office of the governor is located on the Second Floor (their working office is located at the Capitol).</p><br>
<p>The First Gentleman&#39;s office is also located on the Second Floor. Their office is not normally part of tours because the office is used as a working office for writing speeches, scheduling appearances, and planning special events.</p><br>
<h3>The Third Floor and the Basement</h3><br>
<p>The Governor of Iowa and the First Family live in the private apartment on the third floor of the house. This floor is not open to tours.</p><br>
<p>The Basement, like the Third Floor, is also not open to the public. A kitchen located in the basement prepares meals for special events. Also located in the basement is an Iowa State Patrol security office where an unspecified number of troopers assigned to the premises provide 24/7 protection to the governor of Iowa and Terrace Hill property.</p><br>
<h2>Tour information</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill is open for guided tours Tuesdays through Saturdays at 10:30 am and 12:00 pm by reservation made 48 hours in advance. Terrace Hill&#39;s touring season is March through December.</p><br>
<p>Carrollton is a historic neighborhood of Uptown New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, which includes the Carrollton Historic District, recognized by the Historic District Landmark Commission. It is the part of Uptown New Orleans farthest upriver while still being easily accessible to the French Quarter. It was historically a separate town, laid out in 1833 and incorporated on March 10, 1845. Carrollton was annexed by New Orleans in 1874 , but it has long retained some elements of distinct identity.</p><br>
<p>Historically the boundaries of the city of Carrollton were the Mississippi River, the downriver border of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, Fig Street, and Lowerline Street. The area on the river side of Claiborne Avenue is sometimes referred to as "Old Carrollton". The incorporation of Carrollton created an apparent anomaly in New Orleans street names; Lowerline is upriver from Upperline Street, which was originally the upriver boundary of another suburb annexed in the 1850s.</p><br>
<h2>City overview</h2><br>
<p>The main street is broad Carrollton Avenue, lined with Southern live oaks, with the St. Charles Avenue Streetcar running on the "neutral ground" or central median. The streetcar barn is a block off the avenue in Carrollton, on Willow Street, and the landmark Camellia Grill diner is near the corner of St. Charles and Carrollton Avenues. The neoclassical Carrollton Courthouse building is on Carrollton Avenue near the Mississippi; as of 2023, it houses The Carrollton, an upscale assisted living facility.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood and Avenue are pronounced "kaa-rull-ton" or "kaa-ril-tin" by residents and other uptowners, but many people from the downtown parts of New Orleans (especially those born in the mid-20th century and earlier) pronounce the names as "Karl-ton".</p><br>
<p>Tulane University and Loyola University New Orleans are just a few blocks below Carrollton, and many students, faculty, and staff live in the area and patronize the businesses there.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Carrollton Avenue and Saint Charles Avenue, the neighborhood still retains two "neighborhood main streets" of mixed residential and commercial use. Lower Carrollton centers on Maple Street, with many restaurants, coffee houses, bars, and upscale shops. Upper Carrollton has Oak Street, formerly hosting somewhat larger businesses (such as Woolworth); current businesses there range from restaurants and shops to the best known of the neighborhood&#39;s live music venues, the Maple Leaf Bar.</p><br>
<p>In the northwest section of Carrollton on Claiborne Avenue is Marsalis Harmony Park (formerly Palmer Park), which hosts some art festivals and moderate sized live music festivals each year. The park has a monument to the Carrolltonians who died in World War I. After Hurricane Katrina, then called Palmer Park, hosted the monthly Mid-City art market, displaced from the more severely damaged Mid-City neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The historically predominantly African-American part of Carrollton along the riverfront has been known since the mid-20th century as "Black Pearl." Mahalia Jackson, the "Queen of Gospel music", was from the Black Pearl section of Carrollton.</p><br>
<p>This part of Carrollton is documented as the location of "Rising Sun Hall" near the riverfront in the late 19th century, which seems to have been a building owned and used for meetings of a Social Aid & Pleasure Club, commonly rented out for dances and functions. This is one possible inspiration for the legendary song "The House of the Rising Sun." Definite connections to gambling or prostitution, if any, are undocumented for either of these buildings, neither of which still exists.</p><br>
<p>Other smaller, sub-neighborhoods in the area are called Leonidas/Pigeontown, Riverbend, and East Carrollton.</p><br>
<p>Most of Carrollton has long been ethnically mixed, with "free people of color" owning homes in other parts of the town before the Civil War. Many immigrants from Germany, Ireland, and other parts of the United States settled here in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The post of "mayor of Carrollton" survived to the 1980s, although it was an informal one, representing the concerns of the neighborhood to the New Orleans city council. As of 2004, the United States Postal Service continues to deliver mail addressed to "Carrollton, Louisiana." The ZIP Code is 70118.</p><br>
<p>During New Orleans Mardi Gras celebrations, the Krewe of OAK parades through Carrollton. The Phunny Phorty Phellows krewe also holds its "parade" in Carrollton, throwing beads from the streetcar to usher in the parades season on what is colloquially known as Twelfth Night, the Epiphany, January 6.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<h3>Primary and secondary schools</h3><br>
<p>New Orleans Public Schools and the Recovery School District serve Carrollton.</p><br>
<p>Prominent in the area is the Carrollton Courthouse, the former courthouse for the city of Carrollton (located at 719 South Carrollton Avenue). Designed by prominent New Orleans architect Henry Howard, who also designed many other notable buildings around Louisiana including Nottoway Plantation and Madewood Plantation, and completed in 1855, the site served as the courthouse for Carrollton and Jefferson Parish until the town was annexed onto New Orleans in 1874. Since then, the building has housed McDonogh 23 elementary school, Ben Franklin Senior High School, Lusher Elementary School&#39;s 6-8 extension (now Lusher Charter School), and Audubon Charter School. The building was vacant from 2013 until 2023, when The Carrollton, an upscale assisted living facility, was opened.</p><br>
<p>There was a private school named the Carrollton Private School, founded to avoid racial integration in the 1950s. The school campus was located on Willow Street at corner of Monroe Street. Grades 1 thru 8.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 the board of Lycée Français de la Nouvelle-Orléans approved plans to ask to open a campus at the former James Weldon Johnson Elementary School in Carrollton. The request was approved in March 2017. That building temporarily housed Sophie B. Wright Charter School from 2013, until 2016.</p><br>
<h3>Public libraries</h3><br>
<p>The New Orleans Public Library operates the Nix Branch Library in Carrollton Riverbend. Robert Morris of the Uptown Messenger said that it was a "popular little" library. As of 2011 there was a "secret gardener" who watered the flowers on the library property.</p><br>
<p>Sagamore Hill was the home of the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, from 1885 until his death in 1919. It is located in Cove Neck, New York, near Oyster Bay on the North Shore of Long Island, 25 mi east of Manhattan. It is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site, which includes the Theodore Roosevelt Museum in a later building on the grounds.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A native of New York City, Theodore Roosevelt spent many summers of his youth on extended vacations with his family in the Oyster Bay area. In 1880, 22-year-old Roosevelt purchased 155 acre of land for $30,000 (equal to $ today) on Cove Neck, a small peninsula roughly 2 mi northeast of the hamlet of Oyster Bay. In 1881, his uncle James A. Roosevelt had an estate home built several hundred feet west of the Sagamore Hill property.</p><br>
<p>In 1884, Theodore Roosevelt hired the New York architectural firm of Lamb & Rich to design a shingle-style, Queen Anne home for the property. The 22-room house building commenced in May, 1884, completed by John A. Wood and Son, of Lawrence, Long Island, in March, 1885 for $16,975 (equal to $ today). Roosevelt stayed there in the summer of 1885 with his sister and daughter for the hunts and moved into the house with second wife Edith in March, 1887. Roosevelt had originally planned to name the house "Leeholm" after his wife, Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt. However, she died in 1884 and Roosevelt remarried in 1886, so he decided to change the name to "Sagamore Hill". Sagamore is the Algonquin word for chieftain, the head of the tribe.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, Roosevelt expanded the house, adding the largest room, called the "North Room" to a design by C. Grant LaFarge (40 by), for $19,000 (equal to $ today). The North Room is furnished with trophies from the former presidents hunts and gifts from foreign dignitaries, alongside pieces of art and books from the Roosevelts collection. The home then had</p><br>
<p>23 rooms, including a water closet with a porcelain tub, which was a luxury at the time of its construction.</p><br>
<p>The house and its surrounding farmland became the primary residence of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt for the rest of their lives and the birthplace of three of their five children (Theodore Jr., Kermit and Ethel). Sagamore Hill took on its greatest importance when it became known as the "Summer White House" during the seven summers (1902–1908) that Roosevelt spent there as President. It played host to numerous visits from foreign dignitaries and peace talks that helped draw an end to the Russo-Japanese War. Roosevelt died at Sagamore Hill on January 6, 1919, and he was buried at nearby Youngs Memorial Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>On July 25, 1962, Congress established Sagamore Hill National Historic Site to preserve the house as a unit of the National Park Service. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, Sagamore Hill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the home is viewable by ticketed tour and almost all of the furnishings are original. The grounds are open to the public and admission is free. Also on the site is the Theodore Roosevelt Museum, which chronicles the life and career of the President. The museum is housed in the 1938 house called "Old Orchard", the former residence of Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and his family which was designed by William G. McMillan, Jr. Sagamore Hill was closed for about 4 years (from 2011 to 2015) to allow for restoration work to take place. The Sagamore Hill visitor center was destroyed by a fire on Christmas Eve 2018; no one was injured, as Sagamore Hill was closed due to the government shutdown.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Asteroid 218679 Sagamorehill, discovered by Richard Kowalski in 2005, was named for the home of former US President Theodore Roosevelt. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on January 9, 2020.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate complex is a group of six buildings in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C., United States. It is a primarily a development of residences in cooperative ownership, but it also has a hotel and an office building . Covering a total of 10 acres  just north of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, the buildings include:</p><br>
<p>Watergate West (2700 Virginia Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate 600 (600 New Hampshire Avenue NW), office building</p><br>
<p>Watergate Hotel (2650 Virginia Avenue NW)</p><br>
<p>Watergate East (2500 Virginia Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate North (2510 Virginia Avenue NW), cooperative apartments (two lobbies, one is North and one is South)</p><br>
<p>Watergate South (700 New Hampshire Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate Office Building (2600 Virginia Ave NW), the office building where the Watergate burglary happened</p><br>
<p>Built between 1963 and 1971, the Watergate became one of the most desirable living spaces in Washington, D.C., popular with members of Congress and political appointees of the executive branch. The complex has been sold several times since the 1980s. During the 1990s, it was subdivided and its component buildings and parts of buildings were sold to various owners.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, then located on the sixth floor of the Watergate Office Building, was burgled; private campaign documents were photographed and telephones were wiretapped.</p><br>
<p>The name "Watergate" and the suffix "-gate" have since become synonymous with and applied by journalists to controversial topics and scandals in the United States and elsewhere, even extending to contexts where English is not a major language.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Watergate area is bounded on the north by Virginia Avenue, on the east by New Hampshire Avenue, on the south by F Street, and on the west by the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway which is along the Potomac River. It is in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood, next to the Kennedy Center and the embassy of Saudi Arabia. The nearest Metro station, 0.4 miles (650 m) away, is Foggy Bottom–GWU station.</p><br>
<h3>Site history</h3><br>
<p>During the 1950s, the World Bank considered building its international headquarters here and on the adjacent site (which now houses the Kennedy Center), but rejected the site for unspecified reasons. It constructed its headquarters at its current location at 1818 H Street NW in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<h2>Name origins</h2><br>
<p>The name "Watergate" relates to numerous aspects of its physical and historical context. The name "Watergate" and the suffix "-gate" have since become synonymous with and applied by journalists to controversial topics and scandals in the United States and elsewhere, in places that do not have English as the main language.</p><br>
<p>The complex sits near the eastern terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which operated from 1831 to 1924 and is now a National Historical Park. The remains of the gravity dam across Rock Creek, as well as Waste Weir #1 are at this site. Land once owned by the canal company was part of the 10 acre site purchased in 1960 by the project&#39;s developer, Rome-based Società Generale Immobiliare (SGI).</p><br>
<p>In his 2018 book The Watergate: Inside America&#39;s Most Infamous Address, author Joseph Rodota gave three accounts of the origin of the name, based on sources inside the development team: Author and playwright Warren Adler, while working as a publicist for the developers, came up with the name; Nicolas Salgo, a New York financier who suggested the original site to Societa Generale Immobiliare, acquired the name from Marjory Hendricks, owner of the Water Gate Inn; and three local executives—Giuseppe Cecchi, an employee of Societa Generale Immobiliare, Nicolas Salgo and Royce Ward—came up with the name, inspired in part by the Water Gate Inn, and recommended it to executives in the Rome office for approval. According to Rodota, the earliest use of the name Watergate in the surviving files of Societa Generale Immobiliare is a June 8, 1961, memorandum authored by Giuseppe Cecchi, summarizing an early meeting with officials of the future John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts about the proposed project.</p><br>
<p>In his 2009 book Presidential Power on Trial: From Watergate to All the Presidents Men, William Noble wrote that the Watergate "got its name from overlooking the gate&#39; that regulated the flow of water from the Potomac River into the Tidal Basin at flood tide." That gate (near the Jefferson Memorial) is about 1.5 mi downriver from the Watergate complex.</p><br>
<p>Another namesake, the "Water Gate Inn" restaurant (1942–1966), operated on the site for more than two decades before the Watergate complex was built.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate steps performance stage</h3><br>
<p>In 2004, Washington Post writer John Kelly argued that the name was most directly linked to the "Water Steps" or "Water Gate", a set of ceremonial stairs west of the Lincoln Memorial that led down to the Potomac. The steps had been originally planned as a ceremonial gateway to the city and an official reception area for dignitaries arriving in Washington, D.C., via water taxi from Virginia, though they never served this function. Instead, beginning in 1935, a floating performance stage on the Potomac River was anchored to the base of the steps. It was the site for open-air concerts and the audience could sit on the stairs. Up to 12,000 people would sit on the steps and surrounding grass to listen to symphonies, military bands, and operas. The barge concerts ended in 1965 when jet airliner service began at National Airport and the noise impaired the venue&#39;s viability.</p><br>
<p>The music venue was depicted in scenes in the motion pictures Houseboat (1958) and Born Yesterday (1950).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Planning</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate complex was developed by the Italian firm SGI. The company purchased the 10 acre that belonged to the defunct Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in February 1960 for $10 million. The project was announced on October 21, 1960. The apartment buildings included two-story units on the first and second floors, while the top-floor units had private rooftop terraces and fireplaces. and was intended to help define the area as a business and residential rather than industrial district. The Watergate complex was intended to be a "city within a city", and provide so many amenities that residents would not need to leave. Among these were a 24-hour receptionist, room service provided by the Watergate Hotel, health club, restaurants, shopping mall, medical and dental offices, grocery, pharmacy, post office, and liquor store. At the time, it was also the largest renewal effort in the District of Columbia undertaken solely with private funds.</p><br>
<p>Initially, the project was to cost $75 million and consist of six 16-story buildings comprising 1,400 apartment units, a 350-room hotel, office space, shops, 19 luxury "villas" (townhouses), and three-level underground parking for 1,250 vehicles. The Watergates curved structures were designed to emulate two nearby elements. The first was the proposed Inner Loop Expressway, a curving freeway expected to be built just in front of the Watergate within the next decade. The second was the nearby Kennedy Center, then in the planning stage and whose original design was supposed to be curvilinear. Although the Kennedy Center later adopted a rectangular shape for cost reasons, the Watergate complexs design did not change. Incidentally, the curved structures would also give apartment dwellers an excellent view of the Potomac River. Because of the curves in the structure, the Watergate complex was one of the first major construction projects in the United States in which computers played a significant role in the design work.</p><br>
<h3>Approval controversies</h3><br>
<p>Because the District of Columbia is the seat of the United States government, proposals for buildings in the city (particularly those in the downtown area, near federal buildings and monuments) must pass through an extensive, complex, and time-consuming approval process. The approval process for the Watergate complex had five stages. The first stage considered the proposed project as a whole as well as the first proposed building.</p><br>
<p>In December 1961, 14 months after the project was publicly announced, the NCPC voiced its concern that the project&#39;s 16-story buildings would overshadow the Lincoln Memorial and the proposed "National Cultural Center" (later to be called the John F. Kennedy Center for Performing Arts). At the time, the District of Columbia had a 90 ft height limit on all buildings except for those located exclusively along business streets. To obtain a height waiver, SGI would have to include retail office space in the complex, but the site was then zoned only for apartment buildings. Thus, initial approval first had to be won from the District of Columbia Zoning Commission.</p><br>
<p>By the time the DCZC met to consider approval in mid-April 1962, the cost of the project had been scaled back to $50 million. Because the District of Columbia lacked home rule, DCZC planners were reluctant to act without coordinating with agencies of the federal government. The Commission of Fine Arts also had concerns: it felt some of the land should be preserved as public space Three days after the DCZC meeting, the USCFA announced it was putting a "hold" on the Watergate development until its concerns were addressed. In May 1962, the NCPC reviewed the project. Additional revisions in the design plan pushed the cost back up to $65 million, even though only 17 villas were now planned. Based on this proposal, the NCPC approved the Watergate plan.</p><br>
<p>With the support of the NCPC, SGI dug in its heels: It declared it was not interested in developing the unsightly, abandoned commercial site unless its basic curvilinear design (now called "Watergate Towne") was approved, and it lobbied DCZC commissioners in late May, lecturing them on the District&#39;s architectural heritage and the beauty of modern architecture. SGI officials also lobbied the USCFA. Meanwhile, White House staff made it known that the Kennedy administration wanted the height of the complex lowered to 90 ft. The three briefed President John F. Kennedy on the issue, but it was not clear who made the decision to request the height reduction or who made the request public. The White House announcement surprised many, and offended federal and city planners, who saw it as presidential interference in their activities.</p><br>
<p>SGIs chief architect, Gábor Ács, and Watergate chief architect Luigi Moretti flew to New York City on May 17 and defended the complexs design in a three-hour meeting with USCFA members. SGI agreed to shrink three of the planned buildings in the development to 13 stories (112 ft), with the remaining building rising to 130 ft. The final plan broke one building into two, creating five rather than four construction projects. Moretti later admitted he probably would have lowered the height of the buildings anyway, and thought that the approval process had gone relatively smoothly. Construction was expected to begin in spring 1963 and last five years.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate project faced one final controversy. The group Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State began a national letter-writing campaign opposing the project, alleging that the zoning waivers would not have been given had the Vatican not been a major investor in SGI. By mid-November 1962, more than 2,000 protest letters had been sent to Congress and another 1,500 to the White House. But the group&#39;s attempt to stop construction failed, and the project went forward.</p><br>
<p>The project won its $44 million financial backing in late 1962, and its construction permits in May 1963. The builder was Magazine Bros. Construction. Groundbreaking occurred in August 1963, and major excavation work was complete by May 1964.</p><br>
<p>The USA Commission on Fine Arts attempted once more to revise the project. In October 1963, the USCFA alleged that the height of the Watergate complex, as measured from the parkway in front of it, would exceed the agreed-upon height restrictions. Luxury penthouse apartments, however, could extend above the 140 ft limit if they were set back from the edge of the building and the 14th floor was foregone. With these adjustments, the total cost of the first apartment complex (excluding plumbing, electricity, and decoration) was estimated at $12,184,376.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Construction proceeded. The foundation and basement of the first building, the 110 ft Watergate East, were completed by September 1964, and the metal and concrete superstructure rose in October. In September 1964, the Watergate&#39;s developers signed a first-of-its-kind agreement under which the Washington Gas Light Co. would provide the entire complex with its heating and air conditioning. The Watergate East was completed in May 1965, and a month later the first model apartment unit was opened to the public for viewing. The building formally opened on October 23, 1965, and the first tenants moved in a few days later. Prices for the 238 cooperative apartment units ranged from $17,000 for efficiencies to more than $250,000 for penthouses, and were almost completely sold out by April 1967. The average apartment contained two bedrooms, two-and-a-half baths, a dining room, and a kitchen, and cost $60,000. Each parking space in the underground garage cost $3,000. The tenants took title to their building on April 8, 1966. In November, a Safeway supermarket, a Peoples Drug (now known as CVS pharmacy), beauty salon, barber shop, bank, bakery, liquor store, florist, dry cleaner, post office, upscale shops, and high-end restaurant took up residency in the retail space on the ground floor. Riverview Realty was the leasing agent for the complex.</p><br>
<p>Construction began on the second building, the 11-story office building and hotel, in February 1965. Both opened on March 30, 1967; the Watergate Hotel welcomed its first guests the same day.</p><br>
<p>The third building in the complex, Watergate South, opened in June 1968. It contained 260 residential units, more than any other building in the complex.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the fourth building in the complex, the Watergate West apartments, began in July 1967. Apartments in the unfinished building, priced from $30,000 to $140,000, began selling in October 1967, an indication of how popular the complex was with District residents. Construction was completed in 1969.</p><br>
<h3>Fifth building</h3><br>
<p>Controversy arose over the construction of the Watergate Office Building, the complexs fifth and final structure. Its original design called for a 140 ft structure with the upper floors set back to create more space and light. The general counsel for the Kennedy Center told the USCFA that the Watergate Town (the development had dropped the "e") was planning a 170 ft building that would harm the aesthetics of the Kennedy Center and intrude on its park-like surroundings. The Watergates attorneys responded that their building would stay within the agreed-upon 140 ft height.</p><br>
<p>The disagreement continued for nearly two years, delaying the planned fall 1967 start to construction. Watergate apartment residents such as Senator Wayne Morse lobbied the USFCA, DCZC, and NCPC to force SGI to accede to the Kennedy Centers wishes. In November 1967, the USCFA reaffirmed its approval of the Watergate project. When the DCZC appeared on the verge of giving its approval as well, the Kennedy Center argued that the DCZC had no jurisdiction over the controversy. The DCZC disagreed, and re-asserted its jurisdiction. The Districts legal counsel disagreed, giving the DCZC the go-ahead to reaffirm (or not) its approval ruling, which the Zoning Commission did on November 30, 1967.</p><br>
<p>Although it appeared that SGI was winning the legal battle over the fifth building, D.C. city planners attempted to mediate the dispute between the Kennedy Center and the Watergate and achieve a contractual rather than legal solution. Three separate proposals were made to both sides on December 7, 1967. On April 22, 1968, SGI agreed to turn its fifth building slightly to the southwest in order to open up the Watergate complex a little more and give the Kennedy Center a bit of open space. Although the Kennedy Center accepted the proposal, it demanded that the fifth building include apartment units, rather than be completely devoted to office space, to maintain the areas residential nature. The fight now moved to the NCPC. In June 1968, the NCPC held a hearing at which more than 150 Watergate apartment residents clashed with SGI officials over the nature of the final building. On August 8, 1968, SGI and the Kennedy Center reached a resolution, agreeing that only 25 percent of the fifth buildings 1.7 e6sqft would be used as office space and that the remaining space would become apartment units. The NCPC approved the revised plan in November 1968, and the DCZC did so five weeks later, specifically zoning the building for nonprofit and professional use only.</p><br>
<p>The fifth building was completed in January 1971. Its first tenant was the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, which secured occupancy in February 1971, and its first major tenant was the Manpower Evaluation and Development Institute, which leased the entire eighth floor. In October 1972, several high-end fashion boutiques, jewelers, and a restaurant opened in a retail space named "Les Champs".</p><br>
<p>The total cost of the project was $78 million.</p><br>
<h3>Critical reception</h3><br>
<p>The Watergates initial reception was poor, but the complex soon became recognized as one of D.C.s finest examples of modern architecture. When models of the Watergate were unveiled in 1961, critics said the structure "would ruin the waterfront". Architectural critics called the detailing "clunky".</p><br>
<p>The Washington Star newspaper, however, was an early proponent of the Watergate. In May 1962, it editorialized: "It is true that the so-called curvilinear design is at variance with most commercial architecture in Washington. But in our opinion the result, which places a premium on public open space and garden-like surroundings, and which proposes a quality of housing that would rank with the finest in the city, would be a distinct asset." The curving design has continued to draw praise. A noted 2006 guidebook to the citys architecture concluded that the Watergate brought a "welcome fluidity" to the citys boxy look. Others praised the complexs internal public spaces. When the Watergate East opened in 1965, The Washington Post called these areas opulent and evocative of the best in Italian design. The New York Times characterized the design as "sweeping", and complimented each buildings spectacular views of the Potomac River, Virginia skyline, and monuments. Many residents later said the flowing lines reminded them of a graceful ship.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate II</h3><br>
<p>In 1970, as the Watergate was nearing completion, SGI proposed building a "Watergate II" apartment, hotel, and office complex on the waterfront in Alexandria, Virginia, several miles down the Potomac River from the original Watergate. Although the project initially received support from Alexandria city officials and business people, residents of the city&#39;s Old Town strongly objected. The project stalled for two years due to protests from residents and a land dispute regarding title to the waterfront land on which the project was to be sited.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate II project was eventually abandoned in favor of a much larger complex near Landmark Mall in Alexandria (a site nowhere near water).</p><br>
<h2>Individual buildings at the Watergate</h2><br>
<p>The entire Watergate complex was initially owned by Watergate Improvements, Inc., a division of SGI. In 1969, the Vatican sold its interest in SGI and no longer was part-owner of the Watergate. Although the Watergate was considered one of the most glamorous residences in the city, as early as 1970 residents and businesses complained of substandard construction, including a leaking roof and poor plumbing and wiring.</p><br>
<p>The three Watergate Apartment buildings have a total of about 600 residential units. Notable occupants over time have included: Alfred S. Bloomingdale, Arthur F. Burns, Anna Chennault, Bob and Elizabeth Dole (Watergate South), Plácido Domingo, Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Watergate South), Alan Greenspan, Paul ONeill, Abraham Ribicoff, and Rose Mary Woods. The Watergates popularity among members of Congress and high-ranking executive branch political appointees has remained strong ever since the complex opened. So many members of the Nixon administration settled there that the Washington, D.C., press commented on it and nicknamed it the "Republican Bastille". The complex enjoyed a renaissance during the early 1980s and became known as the "White House West" due to the large number of Reagan administration officials living there.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate complex changed hands in the 1970s, and each building was sold off separately in the 1990s and 2000s (decade) (see below). Strict lease agreements, however, have kept the apartment buildings in residents&#39; hands: In the Watergate South, for example, owners cannot rent their unit until a full year has passed, and no lease may last more than two years. Several buildings were sold in the 1990s (for details, see below). In 2005, all of the retail space in the complex was put up for sale.</p><br>
<p>Little redevelopment of the site has occurred in the 40 years since the Watergate was first built. The complex still includes three luxury apartment buildings, the hotel/office building, and two office buildings. The entire development was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 21, 2005.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate East</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate East apartment building is probably the second-best known of the five buildings in the development. It became the most sought-after living location in the city when it opened in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Problems with the buildings construction became apparent shortly after its occupancy. The roof was leaking by 1968. The Washington Post published reports in October 1968 that SGI refused to fix the leaks unless residents dropped their opposition to the construction of the complexs fifth building. Another lawsuit, filed in February 1970, sought exclusive access to the underground parking garage the cooperative claimed as its own, and demanded that the developer stop selling spaces in the residents&#39; parking area. SGI filed a $4 million counterclaim alleging "malicious embarrassment" and five years later paid residents $600,000 to settle the cases.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate East was also the site of a major protest in 1970. In the weeks before the jury verdict in the Chicago, Illinois, trial of the Chicago Seven, political activists began planning and then advertising that a protest would occur at the home of United States Attorney General John N. Mitchell (who lived in the Watergate East). As expected, the verdict was handed down on February 18, 1970 (all the defendants were found not guilty of conspiracy but five were found guilty of incitement to riot). That night, more than 200 people rallied at D.C.s All Souls Unitarian Church to prepare for the mass protest demonstration the next day. On February 19, several hundred protestors gathered in front of the Watergate East and attempted to enter the building. Several hundred police, bused in to prevent the demonstration, engaged in street fighting with protestors, forced them to retreat, and eventually launched several tear gas canisters to disperse the crowd. More than 145 protesters were arrested. Although a second protest was expected the following day, it never emerged and police spent the day drinking coffee and eating cookies and pastries baked at the Watergate Easts pastry shop.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate East tenants&#39; cooperative refinanced its mortgage some time after 2000, and bought the land beneath its building.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate Hotel and Office Building</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate Hotel and Office Building is one of the five buildings in the Watergate development.</p><br>
<h4>The Watergate Hotel</h4><br>
<p>Management and ownership of the hotel have changed several times since the mid-1980s. In 1986, Cunard Line, the cruise ship company, took over management of the hotel and began redecorating and refurbishing it. The British Coal Board pension fund sold the hotel portion of the building to a British-Japanese consortium in 1990 for $48 million. Blackstone Real Estate Advisors, the real estate affiliate of the Blackstone Group, bought the hotel for $39 million in July 1998. For a few years in the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), the Watergate Hotel was operated by the Swissôtel hotel group. But the hotel underperformed other Swissôtel operations of similar size, location, and price. Jean-Louis Palladins eponymous restaurant in the building closed in 1996. The hotel subsequently underwent a renovation in 2000. Swissôtel was purchased by Raffles Hotels and Resorts, and Raffles management contract ended in May 2002.</p><br>
<p>Blackstone began managing the hotel, and put it up for sale in the fall of 2002 (with an asking price of $50 million to $68 million). But many residents in other parts of the complex (some of whom owned the 25 percent of the hotel not sold to Blackstone) The hotel closed on August 1, 2007, for a $170 million 18-month renovation, during which the hotel rooms were intended to be roughly doubled in size to 650 ft&sup2;. But the renovation never occurred, and the building sat empty—consuming $100,000 to $150,000 a month in security, heating, electricity, water, and other costs. Lehman Brothers, Monument Realty&#39;s financing partner, went bankrupt in 2008 and Monument was forced to attempt to sell the property. No buyer emerged and the Blackstone Group regained ownership of the hotel.</p><br>
<p>The Blackstone Group transferred the Watergate Hotel to its Trizec Properties subsidiary. Trizec did not pay the hotel&#39;s property taxes for 2008 (which amounted to $250,000), and estimated that it would take $100 million to make the hotel habitable due to the stalled 2007 renovation. Monument was outbid by developer Robert Holland and the Jumeirah Group (a luxury hotel chain based in Dubai), but the deal collapsed in November 2009 when financing fell through. Euro Capital Properties purchased the hotel in May 2010 for $45 million, with plans to rehabilitate it over the next two years.</p><br>
<p>Euro Capital announced its year-long, $85 million renovation of the hotel in January 2013. Among the improvements it wished to make were the addition of six outdoor "summer gardens" where liquor may be served. The plan would require the approval of the Advisory Neighborhood Commission, which voted to protest the liquor licenses unless the company reached an agreement with all the tenant associations in the Watergate cooperative. A year later, the company said its design team, led by the architectural firm BBGM, had completed a plan to increase the number of luxury hotel rooms from 251 to 348, renovate the lobby to add a bar and lounge, add a restaurant with some outdoor seating, and add a rooftop bar with a small water feature. Euro Capital also said it would seek a hotel management company to continue to operate the Watergate Hotel as an independent hotel. Construction on the new interior elements was planned to start in March 2014.</p><br>
<p>Euro Capital received the construction permits for its now $100 million renovation in May 2014. Architect Bahram Kamali of BBGM said the renovation would completely replace the electrical, HVAC, mechanical, and plumbing (fresh water and sewage) systems. The renovation now featured two new restaurants, upgraded ballrooms, and a new spa and fitness area. Kamali said the interior would feature expensive, high-quality plaster, stone, and wood finishes, but the exteriors iconic textured concrete balconies would remain unchanged except for repairs, repainting, and new windows. Grunley Construction would oversee all the renovations. Israeli artist and interior decorator Ron Arad designed all the metal sculptures and other work that would be featured in the hotels bar, lobby, and other interior space.</p><br>
<p>The cost of the renovation was pegged by Euro Capital at $125 million in November 2014. The 336-room hotel reopened in 2016, nine years after it had closed.</p><br>
<h4>Office building</h4><br>
<p>The office building portion of the building contains 198,000 ft&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) occupied the entire sixth floor of the 11-story building at 2600 Virginia Avenue. The DNC had occupied the space since the building opened in 1967. The phone taps were monitored from the burglars rooms (first Room 419, later Room 723) at the Howard Johnsons Motor Lodge across the street at 2601 Virginia Avenue NW. During a second burglary on June 17, 1972, to replace a malfunctioning phone tap and collect more information, five of the burglars were arrested and the Watergate scandal began to unfold. A plaque on the sixth floor of the office building portion of the Watergate Hotel commemorates the break-in. The sixth floor space, occupied by SAGE Publishing since 2015, houses a private exhibit commemorating the break-in and ensuing scandal.</p><br>
<p>The break-in at the Democratic National Headquarters was not the first break-in at the Watergate. The first break-in at the complex was the burglary of a residential unit in 1969 owned by Rose Mary Woods, President Nixons personal secretary. The burglars took jewelry and some personal items. Woods was later accused of erasing frac from President Nixons secret Oval Office audio taping system—specifically, the tape from June 20, 1972, that proved central to the Watergate scandal.</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the British coal board pension fund sold the office portion of the building as well as the land under two of the three Watergate apartment buildings to JBG (now JBG Smith), an American firm, and Buvermo Properties, a Dutch company. In 1997, they sold the office building to The Blackstone Group&#39;s Trizec Properties division. Trizec sold it to BentleyForbes, a private firm owned by C. Frederick Wehba and members of the Los Angeles-based Webha family, in 2005. In November 2011, after 20 months on the market, BentleyForbes sold the office building for $76 million to the Penzance Cos.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, the owner implemented a multimillion-dollar upgrade to the Watergate Office Building&#39;s lobby, common areas, and Virginia Avenue entrance. Hitt Contracting designed the renovations, and oversaw the construction.</p><br>
<p>Penzance sold the office building to a subsidiary of Rockwood Capital for $75 million at the end of 2016.</p><br>
<p>Brian Friedman acquired the building in 2019 for $101.5 million.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate South</h3><br>
<p>Among the notable people who have lived at the Watergate South is former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. As with the Watergate East, residents of this building have discussed buying the land beneath their building, but there is no urgency as the lease on the land does not expire until 2070.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate West</h3><br>
<p>Construction problems and leaks at Watergate West led the press to ridicule this building, like others in the complex, as the "Potomac Titanic". On March 2, 1971, residents of the Watergate West filed a lawsuit against SGI in which they claimed their units had defective stoves, faulty air conditioning, leaky windows and balconies, and deficient plumbing. SGI said the problems were similar to those with any new building, and that it had already spent $300,000 on repairs.</p><br>
<p>Like the Watergate East, residents of this building have discussed buying the land beneath their building but do not need to do so until the land lease expires in 2070.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate 600</h3><br>
<p>Britain&#39;s National Coal Board Pension Fund sold the Watergate Office Building to John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance in the early 1990s. while the entire building saw extensive renovations in 1997.</p><br>
<p>The Atlantic magazine owner David G. Bradley purchased the building in 2003. He renovated it once again, expanding its lobby and restaurant space.</p><br>
<p>In March 2017, Bradley sold the building to the Washington Real Estate Investment Trust (WashREIT) for $135 million plus ownership in a WashREIT operating unit. WashREIT said it would continue renovating various spaces, upgrade and expand the rooftop amenities, and build a new fitness center and conference center.</p><br>
<p>Coral Castle is an oolite limestone structure created by the Latvian-American eccentric Edward Leedskalnin . It comprises numerous large stones, each weighing several tons, sculpted into a variety of shapes, including slab walls, tables, chairs, a crescent moon, a water fountain and a sundial. It was sold to Lennar Corp. for 13.5 million.</p><br>
<p>Even though Coral Castle is noted for the claim that it was built single-handedly by Leedskalnin using reverse magnetism or supernatural abilities, photographs and eyewitness accounts evidence that he used pulleys and other simple tools.</p><br>
<p>It is currently a privately operated tourist attraction, located in unincorporated territory of Miami-Dade County, Florida.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Coral Castle&#39;s own promotional material says Edward Leedskalnin was 26 years old when he was suddenly rejected by his 16-year-old fiancée Agnes Skuvst in Latvia, just one day before the wedding. Leaving for the United States, he came down with allegedly terminal tuberculosis, but spontaneously healed, stating that magnets had some effect on his disease.</p><br>
<p>He spent more than 28 years building Coral Castle, refusing to allow anyone to view him while he worked. A few teenagers claimed to have witnessed his work, reporting that he had caused the blocks of coral to move like hydrogen balloons. The only advanced tool that Leedskalnin spoke of using was a "perpetual motion holder".</p><br>
<p>Leedskalnin originally built a castle, which he named "Ed&#39;s Place", in Florida City, Florida, around 1923. He purchased the land from Ruben Moser whose wife had assisted him when he had another very bad case of tuberculosis. Florida City, which borders the Everglades, is the southernmost city in the United States that is not on an island. At the time, it was an extremely remote location with very little development. The castle remained in Florida City until about 1936 when Leedskalnin decided to move and take the castle with him. Its second and final location has the mailing address of 28655 South Dixie Highway, Miami, FL 33033, which now appears within the census-generated overlay of Leisure City but which is actually unincorporated county territory. He reportedly chose relocation as a means to protect his privacy when discussion about developing land in the original area of the castle started. He spent three years moving the component structures of Coral Castle 10 mi north from Florida City to its current location outside Homestead, Florida.</p><br>
<p>Leedskalnin named his new place "Rock Gate" after the huge rear swinging gate he built into the back wall. He continued to work on the castle until his death in 1951. The oolite pieces that are part of the newer castle, not among those transported from the original location, were quarried on the property only a few feet away from the castle&#39;s walls. The pool and the pit beside the southern wall are quarries. The east and west quarries have been filled in.</p><br>
<p>At Florida City, Leedskalnin charged visitors ten cents apiece to tour the castle grounds. After moving to Homestead, he asked for donations of twenty-five cents, but let visitors enter free if they had no money. There are signs carved into rocks at the front gate to "Ring Bell Twice". He would come down from his living quarters in the second story of the castle tower close to the gate and conduct the tour. He never told anyone who asked him how he made the castle. He would simply answer "It&#39;s not difficult if you know how."</p><br>
<p>When asked why he had built the castle, Leedskalnin would vaguely answer it was for his "Sweet Sixteen". This is widely believed to be a reference to Agnes Skuvst (often misspelled as "Scuffs"). In Leedskalnin&#39;s own publication A Book in Every Home, he implies his "Sweet Sixteen" was more an ideal than a reality. According to a Latvian account, the girl existed, but her name was actually Hermīne Lūsis.</p><br>
<p>When Leedskalnin became ill in November 1951, he put a sign on the door of the front gate "Going to the Hospital" and took the bus to Jackson Memorial Hospital in Miami. He suffered a stroke at one point, either before he left for the hospital or at the hospital. He died twenty-eight days later of pyelonephritis (a kidney infection) at the age of 64. His death certificate noted that his death was a result of "uremia; failure of kidneys, as a result of the infection and abscess".</p><br>
<p>While the property was being investigated, was found among Leedskalnin&#39;s personal belongings. He had made his income from conducting tours, selling pamphlets about various subjects (including magnetic currents) and the sale of a portion of his 10 acre property for the construction of USA Route 1. As he had no will, the castle became the property of his closest living relative in the United States, a nephew from Michigan named Harry.</p><br>
<p>Coral Castle&#39;s website reports that the nephew was in poor health and he sold the castle to an Illinois family in 1953. However, this story differs from the obituary of a former Coral Castle owner, Julius Levin, a retired jeweler from Chicago, Illinois. The obituary states Levin had purchased the land from the state of Florida in 1952 and may not have been aware there was even a castle on the land.</p><br>
<p>The new owners turned it into a tourist attraction and changed the name of Rock Gate to Rock Gate Park, and later to Coral Castle.</p><br>
<p>In January 1981, Levin sold the castle to Coral Castle, Inc., for. The company retains ownership today.</p><br>
<p>In 1984, the property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was added under the name of "Rock Gate", but the name on the list was changed to "Coral Castle" in 2011.</p><br>
<p>The stone sign just inside the property that says "Adm. 10c Drop Below" is not original to Coral Castle. Leedskalnin made this sign and placed it in front of his earlier location at Florida City when he was tired of giving a "free show" to visitors who were careless and trampled his shrubbery. This sign was donated by the owners of Ed&#39;s Place and placed here in subsequent years.</p><br>
<h2>The Castle</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of Coral Castle consist of 1,100 ST of stones in the form of walls, carvings, furniture, and a castle tower. Commonly mistakenly believed to be made of coral, it is actually made of oolite, also known as oolitic limestone. Oolite is a sedimentary rock composed of small spherical grains of concentrically layered carbonate that may include localized concentrations of fossil shells and coral. Miami Oolite is found throughout southeastern Florida from Palm Beach County to the Florida Keys. Oolite is often found beneath only several inches of topsoil, such as at the Coral Castle site.</p><br>
<p>The stones are fastened together without mortar. They are set on top of each other using their weight to keep them together. The craftsmanship detail is so fine and the stones are connected with such precision that no light passes through the joints. The 8 ft tall vertical stones that make up the perimeter wall have a uniform height. Even with the passage of decades the stones have not shifted.</p><br>
<p>Among the features and carvings are a two-story castle tower that served as Leedskalnin&#39;s living quarters (walls consisting of 8-foot-high pieces of stone), an accurate sundial, a polar telescope, an obelisk, a barbecue, a water well, a fountain, celestial stars and planets, and numerous pieces of furniture. The furniture pieces include a heart-shaped table, a table in the shape of Florida, twenty-five rocking chairs, chairs resembling crescent moons, a bathtub, beds, and a throne.</p><br>
<p>With few exceptions, the objects are made from single pieces of stone that weigh on average 15 ST each. The largest stone weighs 30 ST and the tallest are two monoliths standing 25 ft each.</p><br>
<p>A 9 ST revolving 8-foot tall gate is a famous structure of the castle, documented on the television programs In Search of... The gate is carved so that it fits within a quarter of an inch of the walls. It was well-balanced, reportedly so that a child could open it with the push of a finger. The mystery of the gates perfectly balanced axis and the ease with which it revolved lasted for decades until it stopped working in 1986. In order to remove it, six men and a 50 ST crane were used. Once the gate was removed, the engineers discovered how Leedskalnin had centered and balanced it. He had drilled a hole from top to bottom and inserted a metal shaft. The rock rested on an old truck bearing. It was the rusting out of this bearing that resulted in the gates failure to revolve. Complete with new bearings and shaft, it was set back into place on July 23, 1986. It failed in 2005 and was again repaired; however, it does not rotate with the same ease it once did.</p><br>
<p>Coral Castle remains a popular tourist attraction. Books, magazines, and television programs speculate about how Leedskalnin was able to construct the structure and move stones that weigh many tons. Claims that nobody had ever seen Leedskalnin at work and that he levitated his stones have been repudiated. Orval Irwin reportedly witnessed him quarry his stones and erect parts of his wall, and illustrated the methods in his book Mr. Cant Is Dead. The Nemith Film Collection produced a short film documentary in 1944 of him at work. Coral Castles website states that, "If anyone ever questioned Ed about how he moved the blocks of coral, Ed would only reply that he understood the laws of weight and leverage well."</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Coral Castle is sometimes referred to as Florida&#39;s Stonehenge.</p><br>
<p>The 1958 film The Wild Women of Wongo used Coral Castle as the set for the dragon-god temple.</p><br>
<p>The lunar scenes of the 1961 film Nude on the Moon were shot in Coral Castle.</p><br>
<p>"The Castle of Secrets" is an episode of Leonard Nimoy&#39;s program In Search of... (1976–1982) that includes a dramatization of Leedskalnin moving the stones with minimal effort.</p><br>
<p>On June 20, 2014, the History Channel aired a segment about Coral Castle in the Ancient Aliens series (Season 2, Episode 8), "Mysterious Structures".</p><br>
<p>Billy Idol&#39;s 1986 song "Sweet Sixteen" was inspired by the story of Leedskalnin and Coral Castle.</p><br>
<p>John Martin&#39;s book, Coral Castle Construction, released in November 2012, describes how Ed Leedskalnin built his structure based on fundamental engineering principles.</p><br>
<p>In the video game Fortnite, a location named Coral Castle exists. It is unknown if it is in reference to the real-life Coral Castle. In August 2020, the company that owns Coral Castle sued Epic Games for trademark infringement.</p><br>
<p>In the novel The Island of Eternal Love, by Cuban-American author Daína Chaviano, a whole chapter ("Very close to my heart") is dedicated to the history of Coral Castle and his builder Edward Leedskalnin.</p><br>
<p>Curwood Castle is a small castle, now a museum, located in Owosso, Michigan, built by the author James Oliver Curwood.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>James Curwood was born in Owosso, Michigan on June 12, 1878. He spent much of his early life out of doors, and at a young age left to tour the South on a bicycle. He eventually returned to Michigan, attended the University of Michigan for two years, and went to work as a reporter and later editor at the Detroit Tribune. In 1907, Curwood returned to Owosso to focus on writing, and the next year published his first novel.</p><br>
<p>In 1923, Curwood built this replica of a Norman chateau along the banks of the Shiawassee River near his mother&#39;s home in Owosso. Construction on the building began in 1923 and was completed in 1924. Curwood used the Castle as his writing studio and office. Curwood lived with his family on the other side of the river on the corner of Williams and Mulberry Street (Now M-52).</p><br>
<p>Curwood later became a zealous conservationist and was appointed to the Michigan Conservation Commission in 1926. He died a year later at age 49 on August 13, 1927. In his will, Curwood bestowed the Castle to the City of Owosso. It has served in various roles over the years and is now a museum operated by the city and is open to the public from April through December on Tuesdays through Sundays from 1:00 pm to 5:00 pm. The Castle closed for the winter season each year from January 1, through February and reopens for the year sometime in March. Each year, the city of Owosso hosts the Curwood Festival the first full weekend in June. The Curwood Festival is a non-profit organization run by volunteers and one paid staff member, the volunteers created the festival to celebrate the life and works of James Oliver Curwood.</p><br>
<p>Curwood Castle is closed Mondays, and these holidays, Independence Day, Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Day, and New Year&#39;s Day, The Months of January through February.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Curwood Castle is a romantic interpretation of a Norman chateau. It has an irregular plan with spires at three corners. It has a slate-covered gable roof with chimneys, linked at the base, extending from the rear gable facade. The exterior is made of yellow stucco containing decorative, randomly spaced fieldstones Curwood chose himself. The front facade has an entrance, framed with fieldstone, between two spires, covered with a projecting shed roof.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville is a historic district and neighborhood in central Louisville, Kentucky, United States. It is the third largest such district in the United States, and the largest preservation district featuring almost entirely Victorian architecture. It is also unique in that a majority of its structures are made of brick, and the neighborhood contains the highest concentration of residential homes with stained glass windows in the USA Many of the buildings are in the Victorian era styles of Romanesque Revival, Queen Anne, or Italianate, and many blocks have had few or no buildings razed. There are also several 20th-century buildings from 15 to 20 stories.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville consists of about forty-eight city blocks and is located north of the University of Louisville&#39;s main campus and south of Broadway and Downtown Louisville, in the central portion of the modern city. The neighborhood hosts the annual St. James Court Art Show on the first weekend in October.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville was built as a suburb of Louisville starting in the 1870s, nearly a century after the city was founded. It was initially called the Southern Extension, and the name "Old Louisville" did not come into use until the 1960s. Old Louisville was initially home to some of Louisville&#39;s wealthiest residents, but saw a decline in the early and mid-20th century. Following revitalization efforts and gentrification, Old Louisville is currently home to a diverse population with a high concentration of students and young professionals.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Large-scale development in Louisville south of Broadway did not begin until the 1870s, nearly a century after what is now Downtown Louisville was first settled. The area was initially part of three different military land grants issued in 1773, and throughout the early and mid-19th century the land passed through the hands of several speculators while much of it was used as farmland. Some of the land south of Broadway was still in its natural state during this time, such as the 50 acre tract between Broadway and Breckenridge, known as Jacob&#39;s Woods, a popular picnic ground as late as 1845. A major attraction was Oakland Race Track.</p><br>
<p>Country estates had been built in the area as early as the 1830s, and some of Louisville&#39;s great early mansions, predominantly in the Italianate style, were built along Broadway, very near Old Louisville, before the Civil War. Development from 1850 to 1870 occurred between Broadway and Kentucky Street, the northern extreme of what came to be called Old Louisville. North-south city streets were extended throughout the area in the 1850s, and a mulecar line was extended down Fourth to Oak in 1865.</p><br>
<p>The land south of Broadway that became Old Louisville was annexed by the city in 1868, as a part of larger expansion efforts. This annexation moved the southern boundary of the city as far south as the city&#39;s House of Refuge, an area which is now the University of Louisville campus and the southern border of Old Louisville. A year later, architect Gideon Shryock called the area "a growing and beautiful suburban locality". By 1876 about a quarter of the area was occupied.</p><br>
<p>Development continued as lots were sold southward to present day Oak Street, about a third of the way between Broadway and the House of Refuge. The principal road through the suburb at this time was Central Plank Road, which became Third Street. The emerging area was called the Southern Extension by this time. Growth south of Oak was very slow until the Southern Exposition was held annually in the area from 1883 to 1887.</p><br>
<p>At the urging of Courier Journal editor Henry Watterson, the city held the Southern Exposition, which in the words of Watterson, was meant to "advance the material welfare of the producing classes of the South and West." It was held on 45 acre at the heart of Old Louisville, where St. James Court and Central Park (originally Dupont Square) would eventually be located, and included a 600 by 900 ft enclosed exhibition building. The Exposition was opened by President Chester Arthur and attracted nearly one million visitors in its first year. The exhibition featured the first public display of Thomas Edison&#39;s light bulb, as well as what was billed as the largest artificial lighting display in history with 4,600 lamps, in a time when electric lighting was considered a novelty.</p><br>
<p>During the 1880s, after the exposition ended, the area between Oak and Hill Streets rapidly developed and became one of the city&#39;s most fashionable neighborhoods. According to historian Young E. Allison, 260 homes valued at a total of $1.6 million were constructed in Old Louisville from 1883 to 1886. The dominant styles by this time were Queen Anne and Richardsonian Romanesque. An example of the latter, which was known for its turrets, towers and bay windows, was the Conrad house at St. James Court.</p><br>
<p>These styles became less prevalent in the 1890s as the remaining southern portions of Old Louisville, between Ormsby and the House of refuge, were filled in, predominantly with buildings in the Chateauesque and Renaissance Revival styles. This included one of Old Louisville&#39;s most famous sections, St. James Court, developed starting in 1890 and envisioned as a haven for the upper class, and was completely occupied by 1905. Described as "the epitome of Victorian eclecticism", the area included houses in such styles as Venetian, Colonial, Gothic and others.</p><br>
<p>From 1890 to 1905 the area was home to the Amphitheatre Auditorium, which claimed the second largest stage in the United States and showcased many of the day&#39;s best actors. The structure, located at the corner of 4th and Hill Streets, was razed after its owner William Norton Jr. died. Another form of entertainment in the area was baseball, with the game first being played by 1860 and an early ballpark at Fourth and Ormsby emerging after the Civil War. By 1875, a new park had been built near St. James Court.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville is also home to the Ferguson Mansion, built by Edwin Hite Ferguson. Ferguson commissioned the Louisville architectural firm of Cobb and Dodd—the same firm responsible for designing the Seelbach Hotel and the new capitol building in Frankfort—to design his home in 1901. Construction of the mansion took four years (1901–1905) and cost $100,000, which was approximately ten times the cost of the neighboring Victorian homes. At the time, the mansion was the most expensive home in Louisville. In the 1920s, the Fergusons sold the home to the Pearson family, and it served as the Pearson Funeral Home until the mid-1970s. The house also provided the headquarters for John Y. Brown Jr.&#39;s successful 1979 gubernatorial campaign. In 1986, the mansion became the headquarters of The Filson Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>At its peak in the late 19th century, Old Louisville was the center of Louisvilles high society, with nearly all persons listed in the Society Directory of Louisville having Old Louisville addresses. The directory also listed the reception days and hours of Old Louisvilles leading ladies, which varied by street (such as Tuesdays on Fourth Street or Thursdays on Second).</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>Old Louisville gradually declined as many of its wealthy inhabitants moved to newer streetcar suburbs such as Cherokee Triangle or built estates in areas east of Louisville recently connected by railroad such as Anchorage and Glenview. Many of the large homes in Old Louisville were converted to boarding houses during the Great Depression, and the Ohio River flood of 1937 caused many of the remaining wealthy households to move above the river&#39;s flood plain.</p><br>
<p>The gradual abandonment of Old Louisville by the wealthy was a reflection of changing lifestyles brought on by technology. Many homes of Old Louisville were originally built as mansions that would require several servants to maintain. Because of the relatively high wages offered by manufacturing jobs, servants were no longer affordable to all but the wealthiest families by the mid-20th century. Interurban rail lines, and increasingly automobiles, meant that the wealthy no longer had to live so close to their businesses, and many chose to live in what had previously been summer homes in the county&#39;s east end. The lifestyle that created Old Louisville was effectively obsolete.</p><br>
<p>In the interwar period, many of the neighborhood&#39;s old mansions were hastily converted into apartments to house the growing labor supply, a practice encouraged by the federal government at the time through low-interest loans. However, after World War II, with the housing shortage solved by large-scale suburban development affordable to the middle class, vacancy rates in Old Louisville surged. To attract renters, landlords in Old Louisville had to lower rents dramatically, attracting less affluent tenants.</p><br>
<p>A large section of the neighborhood, from around Kentucky Street to Broadway, was razed. Many buildings south of Lee Street, and nearly all south of Avery Street (renamed Cardinal Boulevard) were razed for the construction of Noe Middle School, expansions to DuPont Manual High School and the University of Louisville, and expansions to industry east of Floyd Street. From 1965 to 1971, 639 buildings were razed as a part of this effort. However, the plan did spur the restoration of over 100 buildings in other parts of Old Louisville.</p><br>
<p>During the 1960s many low income residents downtown who were displaced as a result of urban renewal moved into the newly converted apartments, especially on the north side of the neighborhood. The area was now considered drug ridden and undesirable by most Louisvillians.</p><br>
<h3>Revitalization</h3><br>
<p>One of the first to take an active role in preserving and revitalizing Old Louisville was Louisville Courier Journal writer J. Douglas Nunn. In 1960, he began a vigorous public information campaign concerning the area. Nunn compared it to neighborhoods such as Georgetown in Washington, D.C. and Beacon Hill in Boston. In 1961 Nunn took a leave of absence from his job and started "Restoration, Inc.", a group that restored ten homes in Old Louisvilles Belgravia Court in 1961. This spurred interest in preservation that led many local activists to move to the area, and led to the first use of the name "Old Louisville" in print in that year. With the activists efforts, the area was made a historic preservation district in 1975. The area has continued to improve, with new restaurants and shops opening and many students, and young professionals moving into the area. Property owners, who once cheaply converted the old houses to apartments, have invested more in improvements since the 1980s, and several properties have been converted into luxury condominiums. The median home value more than doubled between 1990 and 2000, increasing at a faster rate than Louisville as a whole. This process has been described as gentrification.</p><br>
<p>The area is now one of the most ethnically and economically diverse in Louisville. Crime is becoming less of a problem. While in 2003 there were 11.5 crimes per 1,000 residents, over twice the average for the city of Louisville as a whole, which was 5.0 crimes per 1,000 residents Old Louisville now has a similar number of calls for police assistance as other parts of Louisville. The Louisville Metro Police 4th Division is responsible for a large portion of Louisville beyond Old Louisville, but is conveniently located in Central Park in Old Louisville. It had 134 officers assigned to it in 2006. Most calls are related to car break-ins and non-violent crimes. Murders are still rare, with one or two per year. Overall crime rates for both Old Louisville and the city as a whole increased sharply in 2005 over the 2004 rate, although there was a decline again the first half of 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Features and attractions</h2><br>
<p>Old Louisville features the largest collection of pedestrian-only streets of any USA neighborhood. Eleven such "courts", where houses face each other across a grass median with sidewalks, were built in the neighborhood from 1891 to the 1920s. Most of the courts are centered off of 4th Street. Belgravia Court and Fountain Court were the first ones to be built in 1891 and are the most well known. Later ones included Reeser and Kensington (1910), which were built with large Victorian styled apartments instead of single family homes; and Eutropia and Rose Courts, which were the last ones built in the 1920s and featured small, single story houses. Belgravia and St. James Court were partially rehabilitated as a part of the urban renewal that began in the 1960s. These developments are apparently unique to Louisville.</p><br>
<p>Two of the three major four-year universities in Louisville are located adjacent to Old Louisville, with Spalding University to the north and the University of Louisville to the south. DuPont Manual High School, a public magnet school, and Presentation Academy, a Catholic girls&#39; high school, are also located in Old Louisville.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood contains The Filson Historical Society, Louisville&#39;s Central Park, which features the Kentucky Shakespeare Festival every summer, the Actors Theatre of Louisville Production Studio, and the Conrad-Caldwell House. The area of 6th and Hill Streets in the neighborhood was the setting of the best selling novel Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch by Louisvillian Alice Hegan Rice. Today there is a non-profit counseling and services center, named Cabbage Patch Settlement House for the novel, on 6th Street at Magnolia Avenue, which serves children of low-income families. During the Christmas holiday season a number of private homes are toured in the Old Louisville Holiday Home Tour.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville&#39;s boundaries are Kentucky Street to the north, Avery Street (Cardinal Boulevard) to the south, I-65 to the east, the CSX railroad tracks to the west. Originally, the neighborhood extended all the way to Broadway on the north, Attwood Street on the south, and Floyd Street on the East; but the northern part was mostly razed for parking lots and light industry, the southern area between Attwood and Avery Streets (now Cardinal Blvd) was razed when the University of Louisville doubled the size of its main campus, and I-65 was built through the area in the 1960s, which created a physical barrier between it and Shelby Park neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Old Louisville is well known for its architecture, with styles ranging from Federal to Queen Anne. Very few antebellum buildings remain, and the most impressive buildings were built in the late 19th century. There are a few Italianate, Beaux-Arts and Second Empire-style houses, but Victorian styles dominate. Victorian Gothic styles are commonly seen. Many styles in Old Louisville are united by their use of red sandstone trim, which became popular by the 1880s to the point that the Courier-Journal said that "few new residences are going up in Louisville in which it is not being used". Another common Victorian style in the area is Richardsonian Romanesque.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the best represented styles of architecture listed above, Old Louisville also has several great examples of the Chateauesque style of architecture in select buildings throughout the area. For example, one of these examples is a residential building, a mansion, at 400 Belgravia Court, which is a "walking court" where the mansions face a park like walk rather than a street. This specific building was completed in 1897 and one of its first residents was William H. Wathen, M.D., an eminent medical educator in Louisville from a family of successful distillers.</p><br>
<p>Although some portions have been razed, many entire blocks remain almost untouched, and historian Theodore M. Brown said "it remains the only nineteenth-century segment of the city that is mostly intact". Some American Craftsman style houses can be found in Old Louisville, which were built as infills.</p><br>
<h3>Tallest buildings</h3><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of 2000, the population of Old Louisville was 11,043, of which 55.9% are white, 35.0% are black, 6.3% are listed as other, and 2.3% are Hispanic. College graduates are 24.5%, people without a high school degree are 22.6%, and people with college experience without a bachelor&#39;s degree are 28.4%. Females are 52.3% of the population, males are 47.7%. Households making less than $15,000 a year are 40.8%; although that is largely a function of the 27% of residents who are full-time college students. Ironically, Old Louisville has the youngest median age of any Louisville neighborhood and the highest percent of people between the ages of 20–29 (25%).</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville&#39;s is about 1.7 square miles in area, and its population density is 7,800 persons per square mile. The best preserved portions, between Kentucky and Hill streets, have a density of over 10,000 persons per square mile.</p><br>
<h2>Regions</h2><br>
<p>Old Louisville is broken up into five different census tracts by the US Census Bureau. There are stark differences revealed by the different tracts from north to south.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville has eight different neighborhood associations, each of which provides different infrastructure. For example, on 4th Street the street lights are designed as old lamp posts and trash cans are ornamented with fleurs-de-lis, while on St. James Court there are gas lamp posts, 3rd and 2nd Streets have small light posts on the sidewalks, and Ouerbacker Court has cast iron decorative gates.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>After years of decline with abandoned buildings and high elderly populations, the demographics of Old Louisville began to change noticeably in the 1990s. New residents were not just college students using the area as housing, but also young professionals who wanted to live in Old Louisville. The Courier-Journal Velocity weekly has reported the area as a hip, emerging center of culture in Louisville. This change is reflected in numerous coffeehouses, restaurants and bars opening in Old Louisville in the 1990s and early 2000s targeting at the younger crowd.</p><br>
<p>Old Louisville is one of the most liberal neighborhoods in Louisville and the state of Kentucky. In 2004, it voted for Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry by a 60% margin and against a successful proposal to amend the state constitution to define marriage as "between one man and one woman" by a 66% margin.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>The Stonewall Inn  is a gay bar and recreational tavern at 53 Christopher Street in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It was the site of the 1969 Stonewall riots, which led to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States. When the riots occurred, Stonewall was one of the relatively few gay bars in New York City. The original gay bar occupied two structures at 51–53 Christopher Street, which were built as horse stables in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>The original Stonewall Inn was founded in 1930 as a speakeasy on Seventh Avenue South. It relocated in 1934 to Christopher Street, where it operated as a restaurant until 1966. Four mafiosos associated with the Genovese crime family bought the restaurant and reopened it as a gay bar in early 1967. The Stonewall Inn was a popular hangout for gay men, particularly for youth and those on the fringes of the gay community. Stonewall operated as a private club because it was not allowed to obtain a liquor license; police raided the bar frequently, in spite of bribes from the owners. The Stonewall riots of June 28 to July 3, 1969, took place following one such raid.</p><br>
<p>The bar went out of business shortly after the riots, and the two buildings were divided and leased to various businesses over the years. In 1990, Jimmy Pisano opened a new bar at 53 Christopher Street, which was initially named New Jimmys before becoming Stonewall. After Pisanos death in 1994, his boyfriend Thomas Garguilo took over the bar, followed by Dominic DeSimone and Bob Gurecki. The Stonewall Inn closed in 2006, and it reopened in March 2007 after Bill Morgan, Tony DeCicco, Kurt Kelly, and Stacy Lentz acquired the bar. The structure at 51 Christopher Street became a visitor center for the Stonewall National Monument in the 2020s.</p><br>
<p>The buildings themselves are architecturally undistinguished, with facades of brick and stucco, while the original bar&#39;s interior has been modified significantly over the years. The modern bar hosts various events and performances, and its owners also operate an LGBT advocacy organization. The Stonewall Inn became a tourist attraction and a symbol of the LGBT community after the riots, and various works of media about the bar have been created over the years. In part because of its impact on LGBT culture, the Stonewall Inn is the first LGBT cultural site designated as a National Historic Landmark and a New York City designated landmark. The bar is also part of the Stonewall National Monument, the first USA National Monument dedicated to the LGBT rights movement.</p><br>
<h2>Background and early history</h2><br>
<p>Meanwhile, Vincent Bonavia had opened Bonnies Stone Wall (or Bonnies Stonewall) at 91 Seventh Avenue South, near the Christopher Street buildings, in 1930. The historian David Carter wrote that, even in the 1930s, this may have been an attempt to subtly welcome queer women. The bar was a secret speakeasy that illegally sold alcohol during Prohibition in the United States; as a consequence, it was raided in December 1930. Bonavia relocated to 51–53 Christopher Street in 1934, after Prohibition was repealed. The architect Harry Yarish installed a large vertical sign on the facade and a doorway with columns around the entrance to 53 Christopher Street. The interior was designed in the style of a hunting lodge.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) wrote that, despite a lack of documentation on Stonewall&#39;s early history, "sources suggest that it was among the most notorious of the tearooms operating in the Village in the early 1930s". The restaurant hosted various banquets and weddings, and the structures at 51 through 61 Christopher Street were sold in March 1965. Sources disagree over whether the new owner was Burt and Lucille Handelsman or Joel Weiser. The restaurant had definitely shuttered by 1966. After the restaurant closed, the buildings were vacant; the signs above the ground-story windows were removed, and the second story of the facade was patched.</p><br>
<h2>Original gay bar</h2><br>
<h3>Renovation and conversion</h3><br>
<p>Greenwich Village had become an LGBT neighborhood as early as the 1930s. The neighborhoods LGBT community was originally concentrated around Greenwich Avenue and Washington Square Park, but, by the 1960s, had started to move westward along Christopher Street. he paid $2,000 for the restaurant, and three other mobsters named Zookie Zarfas, Tony the Sniff, and Joey paid $500 each. It was one of several gay bars operated by the Genovese syndicate in New York City. Matty Ianniello, a Genovese mafioso who controlled various mob-operated bars, collected a portion of the bars profits.</p><br>
<p>The owners believed that a business catering to the LGBT community might turn a profit; in return, they demanded regular payoffs for protection. Frequent raids against gay bars forced most to close, except for those operated by mobsters. By contrast, members of private clubs could bring their own alcoholic beverages under New York state law. Accordingly, Lauria and his co-owners acquired a private club&#39;s license for Stonewall, as they intended to serve LGBT people without obtaining a license from the NYSLA.</p><br>
<p>After acquiring the buildings, the owners renovated the exterior, blacked out the windows for privacy, and reinforced the wooden front doors with steel plates in anticipation of police raids. The new operators added peepholes and several locks to the front doors, and they removed the columns that flanked the original entrance. The operators also placed 2×4 pieces of wood behind the windows so the police could not easily enter through the windows during a raid. The interior was painted black because that color was used in other gay bars and it would hide the interiors burn damage. The new owners retained the Stonewall Restaurants old name so they did not have to replace the exterior sign (although the word "restaurant" was officially dropped from the name, that word was not painted over on the sign). At the time of the conversion, LGBT bars and straight bars had similar facades, though LGBT bars tended to have an intentionally rundown appearance so straight patrons would be discouraged from going to these bars.</p><br>
<h3>Operation</h3><br>
<p>Stonewall opened as a gay bar on March 18, 1967. It had two dance floors in addition to a long bar, jukebox, tables, and seating booths. The facade was nondescript, and the only external indication of the club&#39;s existence was a small sign proclaiming that it was a private, members-only club. Its manager was Ed Murphy (also known as the Skull), an ex-convict who was known for sitting motionless around the bar and watching patrons.</p><br>
<h4>Clientele</h4><br>
<p>Visitors were greeted by bouncers who inspected them through the peepholes in the door. The bouncers accepted almost any LGBT individual who wanted to enter, as well as new patrons who were accompanied by someone that could vouch for them. People under the legal drinking age were frequently admitted. In keeping with private club regulations, patrons were required to sign a logbook upon entry; the logbook also served to screen out straight patrons. The visitor logbook frequently contained pseudonyms such as Donald Duck, Elizabeth Taylor, and Judy Garland. If a visitor wished to leave the bar and return the same night, the bouncers would stamp their hand with individual ink. Any customer who passed the screening process paid an admission fee of $3 on weekends and $1 on weekdays.</p><br>
<p>Patrons were predominantly in their teens or early twenties, though men in their late twenties and early thirties congregated around the main room&#39;s bar. It is unknown to what extent women patronized the bar, though several observers interviewed by David Carter described the bar as being almost exclusively male. These observers also said that almost all of the lesbians at Stonewall were butch lesbians. Due to differing terminologies used in the late 1960s, it is also unknown to what extent transvestites visited the bar, but Carter writes that the number of transsexual and transvestite customers was not insignificant. Many homeless young men slept across the street in Christopher Park and would often try to enter so customers would buy them drinks.</p><br>
<p>The Stonewall Inn was a popular hangout for gay men. The bar was called "one of the most active spots in town currently; very crowded on weekends" in a 1968 guidebook, and it was New York Citys only gay bar that allowed open dancing. It was also located on a busy road and was cheaper than comparable gay bars. The artist Thomas Lanigan-Schmidt recalled that Stonewall was one of the only bars in the city where couples could slow dance together, while the historian Martin Duberman said that the bar was frequented by a "non-vanilla mix of people: people in suits and ties, street hustlers, drag queens, a few dope pushers, a fair number of nonwhites". and Newsday wrote that "Here the young men with the delicate wrists and the bobby pins in their hair come to dance the night away with one another". One contemporary patron described the bar as being accepting of "anyone who was in the margins of gay society", but that this gave the bar a "trashy, low, and tawdry" feel. Homeless youth and drag queens frequented the bar by 1969; it was one of the only places where they were socially accepted, and the admission fee meant that additional drinks did not require a tab. Other LGBT patrons shunned Stonewall because of its mob ownership and the drag queens presence.</p><br>
<h4>Ambiance and activities</h4><br>
<p>As a private club, Stonewall was not legally allowed to accept money for drinks, and each customer was given two tickets that could be exchanged for drinks. Different-colored tickets were used each day to prevent patrons from saving up drink tickets. The owners could earn up to $5,000 on Fridays and $6,500 on Saturdays,</p><br>
<p>The spaces were poorly lit, giving it the impression of a dive bar. The main rooms bar lacked running water, forcing barkeeps to run dirty glasses through rubber tubs and immediately reuse them. The bar had a poor sound system, and the toilets were regularly clogged, giving the Stonewall Inn a reputation for filthiness. The buildings, at the time, did not have a rear emergency exit, which not only precluded Stonewall from receiving a liquor license but also created a fire hazard. Additionally, the bars employees were known to have engaged in blackmail. The bar was not openly used for prostitution, but drug sales and other cash transactions did take place,</p><br>
<p>Despite the poor conditions, the Stonewall Inn&#39;s popularity endured. Stonewall was the only bar for gay men in New York City where dancing was allowed, and dancing was its main draw after it opened as a gay club. Of the two bar rooms, the main room to the east typically played mainstream rock. There was a jukebox behind the bar in the main room; patrons could pay to have a song played on the jukebox.</p><br>
<p>The back room, to the west, mostly played soul music. It was called the black room or the Puerto Rican room, as it was frequented by black and Hispanic customers, as well as youth. The back room was even more dimly lit than the main room, and it had numerous waiters, all of whom cajoled guests to buy drinks. The south end of the back room, near Christopher Street, was occupied by "the most marginal of the Stonewall&#39;s customers". Around 1968, the owners removed a partition in 51 Christopher Street to create a dance floor, while another partition was installed in 53 Christopher Street. Alice Echols, in a 2010 book, cited the two dance floors as possibly having "helped to undermine the sort of sexual indirection and repression that characterized most gay bars".</p><br>
<h4>Bribes and raids</h4><br>
<p>The bars lack of a license made it vulnerable to police raids. A magazine article, published five months after the bars opening, implied that the bar paid the police around $1,200 a month. Some observers such as the activist Craig Rodwell objected to the payoffs because of the corruption involved. In addition, despite these payoffs, Stonewall was raided once a month on average, and it was raided even more frequently before elections or when local residents complained. Seymour Pine, a police inspector who later led the raid that caused the Stonewall riots, said his team frequently raided gay bars because LGBT people did not fight back when they were arrested. Pine recalled that limousines carrying wealthy patrons would come to the bar on Saturdays, so he tried to avoid raiding the bar on these nights.</p><br>
<p>The bar&#39;s management usually knew about raids beforehand due to police tip-offs, and raids occurred early enough in the evening that business could commence after the police had finished. There were white floodlights inside the bar, which could be activated in case of a raid. Many bars kept extra liquor nearby so they could resume business as quickly as possible if alcohol was seized. Also liable to be arrested were people who did not wear at least three pieces of gender-conforming clothing, such as men in full drag. Anyone who was detained in a raid was often released within hours, and as a result the staff were unconcerned about being arrested.</p><br>
<p>By June 1969, campaigning for that years mayoral election had precipitated frequent raids in local bars, including one at the Stonewall Inn less than a week before the Stonewall riots. The raids targeted not only gay bars but also straight bars frequented by minorities, According to Rodwell and the novelist Edmund White, the new captain of the NYPDs 6th Precinct had ordered the raids in Greenwich Village. In a 1987 retrospective, Robert Amsel wrote in the LGBT magazine The Advocate that many LGBT people were in favor of the raids because they did not want the bars to be operated by the mafia; according to Amsel, these critics did not see that "without the mafia&#39;s money, there might not have been any gay bars to legitimize".</p><br>
<h3>Uprising</h3><br>
<p>The Stonewall riots started in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969. As was customary, the police began to check patrons&#39; identification. A scuffle broke out when a butch lesbian in handcuffs was escorted from the door of the bar to the waiting police wagon several times. The police tried to restrain some of the crowd and knocked a few people down, which incited bystanders even more. Eventually, the police were barricaded inside; the crowd was not cleared until 4:00 a.m.</p><br>
<p>Almost everything in the Stonewall Inn was broken in the riots, and what little liquor remained was given away for free afterward. Stonewall&#39;s windows were covered with boards the night of the riots, but another riot took place on July 2. The riots ultimately ended on July 3, when the NYPD dispersed the protests.</p><br>
<h2>After the riots</h2><br>
<h3>1960s to 1980s</h3><br>
<h4>Closure and relocation</h4><br>
<p>By the end of 1969, the Stonewall Inn had closed; sources disagree on whether it was shuttered in October or in December. Carter writes that the bar&#39;s downfall may have been because of its infamy, the fact that it had no liquor license, and resentment toward the mafiosos who operated the bar. Pine claimed that he had been ordered to raid the bar because it was blackmailing wealthy patrons, but Carter could not find evidence to corroborate this claim. A Newsday article from 1970 described Stonewall as "still a battered, broken place, with a For Rent sign on it now".</p><br>
<p>Another Stonewall opened at 211 22nd Street in Miami Beach, Florida, in 1972. Two patrons there filed a lawsuit against the local police chief in 1973, asserting malicious harassment. The Miami Beach establishment burned down shortly before 7:00 a.m. on March 2, 1974, following a suspected arson.</p><br>
<h4>Commercial conversion</h4><br>
<p>Manny E. Duell, the operator of a holding company named 51 to 61 Christopher Corp., took over the buildings in March 1970. The owners submitted alteration plans to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission and the New York City Department of Buildings in late 1970, as they sought to convert 51 to 53 Christopher Street into a restaurant and non-alcoholic bar. The new venue would have retained most of the 1967 bar&#39;s interior decorations, but the architects planned to replace the damaged doors and windows. By 1973, the original gay bar had been divided into two storefronts at the ground level and apartments on the second story. The Gay Activists Alliance planned to install a plaque on the buildings, as it did not have enough money to buy the structures for preservation purposes.</p><br>
<p>LPC documents show that, in 1975, Duell leased out the two storefronts there as distinct spaces. Thereafter, the buildings were used by a variety of businesses, and subsequent renovations removed all of the original gay bars decorations. Documents indicate that the owners of 51 Christopher Street filed plans to widen that buildings entrance in August 1975. The structure at 53 Christopher had become a bagel shop known as Bagels And by 1976. Mimi Sheraton, in a New York Times article from that year, described 53 Christopher Street as having wood-paneled walls, wood columns, and rhombus-shaped mirrors, giving the appearance of a "never-ending abstract forest". A commemorative plaque was installed on the facade in 1979 on the tenth anniversary of the riots.</p><br>
<p>After serving as a bagel shop, 53 Christopher Street became a Chinese restaurant, known as the Szechuan Cottage Restaurant. New York City mayor Ed Koch proposed co-naming the stretch of Christopher Street outside Stonewall Inn as Stonewall Place in early 1989, and the New York City Council overwhelmingly approved the plan that April. The bar at number 51 closed in 1989, upon which the sign on the buildings facade was disassembled. By the early 1990s, the building at 51 Christopher Street had become a mens clothing store.</p><br>
<h3>Revival at 53 Christopher Street</h3><br>
<h4>Reopening</h4><br>
<p>A gay bar named New Jimmys opened at the Stonewall site in May 1990, serving the citys growing outwardly LGBT community. The space was operated by Jimmy Pisano, a first-time bar owner who, according to his boyfriend Thomas Garguilo, was initially loath to name the bar "Stonewall" because of the sudden closure of the similarly named bar next door. Rather, Pisano initially named the bar after Jimmy Merry, who had taught him how to operate a bar. New Jimmys occupied only the space at 53 Christopher Street A commemorative plaque was also installed outside the bars entrance. In a contrast to the first iteration of the gay bar, the NYPD did not raid the revived Stonewall Inn, and gay officers sometimes even ordered drinks from the bar.</p><br>
<p>New Jimmys was renamed Stonewall in 1991. Stonewall also suffered from low patronage due to competition from other taverns; according to DeSimone, Stonewall frequently did not see more than 50 or 60 patrons even on its busiest nights. According to Garguilo, so many people came to commemorate the riots 25th anniversary that there was a line to take pictures of the bar. DeSimone and Pisano&#39;s business partner Bob Gurecki took over Stonewall in the mid-1990s.</p><br>
<h4>DeSimone takeover</h4><br>
<p>At the end of 1996, Ben Duell, who owned the building, refused to renew DeSimone&#39;s lease unless the latter agreed to expand the bar into the vacant second story. and was one of several remaining gay bars on the street.</p><br>
<p>The bar buildings were added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1999</p><br>
<p>By early 2006, Stonewall&#39;s beverage suppliers were suing its operators. but neglect, gross mismanagement, and noise complaints from neighbors were also cited as reasons for its downfall. The bar was forced to close again later in 2006 after losing its liquor license,</p><br>
<h4>New management and visitor center</h4><br>
<p>Around 2007, the bar was taken over by the businessmen Bill Morgan, Tony DeCicco, and Kurt Kelly, Morgan told the LGBT newspaper PinkNews that "When we went looking for investors to save the Stonewall people came out of the woodwork. Gay and straight." An NPR reporter stated that the co-owners sought to renovate the bar to approximate its 1969 appearance, although they did not necessarily wish to operate the bar as a museum. The Stonewall Inn reopened in March 2007. Lentz hung a costume in the window to honor the actress Judy Garland, a gay icon who had died a few days before the riots; the costume resembled the dress worn by Garlands character Dorothy in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. Kelly said that, after the bar reopened, other bars nearby saw increased business. The bar recorded few issues, other than sporadic violent incidents. One commentator for the Gay and Lesbian Review, said in 2009 that the modern bars "crowd veers toward a random mix of tourists, city kids, and bridge-and-tunnel gays" but that its symbolism was still important.</p><br>
<p>During the 2010s, the Stonewall Inn continued to attract regular customers, although a bartender described tourists as comprising most of the visitors. There was a gift shop behind the bar room. The Duell family sold 51–53 Christopher Street and five other buildings in 2015 to a holding company associated with Alan Wasserman, which paid $57 million. the LGBT–rights organization Pride Live tried to develop a visitor center for the monument. Pride Live began negotiating with the owner of 51 Christopher Street in 2019, One of the bars longest-tenured staff members at the time—the bartender Tree Sequoia, who had been present during the riots—frequently told stories to visitors and was also Stonewalls international ambassador. One commentator described the bar in 2019 as displaying sponsorship banners above the entrance, while the vacant storefront at 53 Christopher Street contained posters decrying violence against LGBT people.</p><br>
<p>The bar closed temporarily in March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and Stonewalls owners unsuccessfully applied for a loan. Though the bar was allowed to start selling cocktails that June, it was in danger of closing permanently, so Kelly and Lentz launched two crowdfunding campaigns on GoFundMe; They raised at least $300,000 for the bar in one month, MBB Architects designed the visitor center, and Local Projects was responsible for designing the exhibits. as the United States first official national visitor center for LGBTQ culture. Numerous politicians and celebrities, including the singer Elton John and USA President Joe Biden, participated in the inauguration ceremonies, and the New York City Subway&#39;s Christopher Street–Sheridan Square station was renamed the Christopher Street–Stonewall station on the same day.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The first Stonewall Inn occupied a pair of repurposed horse stables at 51 and 53 Christopher Street, on the northern side of the street. The modern-day bar occupies only the structure at 53 Christopher Street. The two buildings share a land lot with five other structures, these seven structures contained numerous storefronts and a combined 23 apartments.</p><br>
<p>Despite the bar&#39;s significance to the LGBT community, David W. Dunlap of The New York Times wrote: "An architectural monument, Stonewall is not". Ginia Bellafante wrote for the same newspaper in 2015 that the buildings were architecturally undistinguished but received an "A for meaning".</p><br>
<h3>Surroundings</h3><br>
<p>Directly south of the two structures is Christopher Park, a 0.19 acre pocket park between Christopher, West 4th, and Grove streets. In tribute to the riots, the park has contained the Gay Liberation statue by George Segal since 1992. It also displayed a sculpture named A Love Letter to Marsha (a temporary tribute to the transgender activist Marsha P. Johnson, who was present during the riots) during 2021. The New York City Subways is next to the park. The stations artwork includes a triptych that depicts the riots, and the station itself was renamed after Stonewall National Monument in 2024.</p><br>
<p>A crosswalk at Christopher Street and Seventh Avenue South to the west, the closest intersection to the Stonewall Inn, has been painted in the colors of the LGBT rainbow flag since 2017. To the east, Christopher Street intersects Grove Street, Waverly Place (twice), and Gay Street. Parts of these roads are protected on the National Register of Historic Places along with the bar itself.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>On both buildings, the facade of the ground story is mostly made of brick, while the second floor is clad with stucco. At ground level, the center of number 53s facade contains a rectangular, 4 by storefront window with a brick windowsill, which in turn is flanked by arched entrances. The entrance to the left is a narrow semicircular arch. The entrance to the right is a segmental arch, with wooden double doors. On the second story, the stucco facade is scored horizontally, and there is a rectangular iron flower-box holder beneath each of the three windows. By the 21st century, a neon sign with the bars name was ordinarily placed in the window, while pride flags were hung on the facade.</p><br>
<p>The building at 51 Christopher Street is two stories high (previously three), with a one-story rear annex, and is four bays wide.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<h4>Original gay bar</h4><br>
<p>When the Stonewall Inn was turned into an LGBT bar, the bar was split into two primary rooms, one in each building. The bar had almost no decoration and scant lighting, and what little decoration did exist was destroyed on the first day of the Stonewall riots. Aside from black paint, the spaces had temporary wooden bars. According to a description of the bar from the 1960s, the decoration was so sparse that it looked "to have only recently been converted from a garage into a cabaret in about eight hours and at a cost of under fifty dollars".</p><br>
<p>Originally, service spaces such as the coat room were placed at the front of the bar, likely to limit outsiders views of the interior. Visitors entered straight into a tiny vestibule. There was an office or coat check to the left of the main entrance, immediately behind the front window of 53 Christopher Street. Swinging doors led from the main room, up one step, to the back room at 53 Christopher Street. The back room contained a bar at its rear. Toward the rear of the bar were the mens and women&#39;s restrooms, which had doors from both the main and back rooms.</p><br>
<h4>Later configuration</h4><br>
<p>The interior of the original Stonewall Inn was divided into two spaces and redesigned after the original bar closed. The ground floor&#39;s interior decorations include a mirror occupying one wall, as well as wood paneling along the other walls. There is also a side room with red lighting. Inside is the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor, which was established in 2019 to honor notable LGBT individuals. The modern bar has contained a variety of pride flags; banknotes collected from foreign visitors; pictures and newspaper clippings about the riots; and a sign indicating that the bar had been raided.</p><br>
<p>The second story of the revived bar includes a room with a capacity of 150 people; this dance floor has a stage, a disco ball, seats with leopard print upholstery, and velour curtains. A New York magazine article described the dance floor as having a "bar mitzvah vibe" because of its decoration. According to a 2019 account, there was also a basement performance space.</p><br>
<p>51 Christopher Street has been converted into a 3,700 ft2 visitor center, containing interactive displays and exhibits about the bar and national monument. There is also artwork, as well as information about the history of the building and the riots. The visitor center also includes restrooms and space for park rangers. The interior of the visitor center is decorated in white, and the doorway to the existing bar at 53 Christopher Street has been bricked up. One observer for the magazine Fast Company said the visitor center "makes Stonewall a sanitary, consumable story", while The New York Times art critic Holland Cotter wrote of the visitor center&#39;s "informational softness".</p><br>
<h2>Drinks</h2><br>
<p>The modern Stonewall Inn serves only drinks and not food. The bar stopped selling Anheuser-Busch brands such as Bud Light in 2021 because of Anheuser-Busch&#39;s donations to numerous politicians who had introduced anti-LGBT legislation. Bud Light had been among the most popular beer brands sold at the bar when Stonewall stopped selling it.</p><br>
<p>A Condé Nast Traveler review from 2009 described the beverages as "unfussy and mainstream". Time Out and New York rank the bar&#39;s drinks as being moderately priced. The Telegraph wrote in 2018: "All that said, Stonewall is a fine place to sip a vodka soda and meet new friends."</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>The modern Stonewall Inn has hosted a variety of local music artists, drag shows, trivia nights, cabaret, karaoke, private parties, and same-sex wedding receptions. The bar has hosted celebrity performances such as those by Madonna in 2018 and Taylor Swift in 2019, as well as visits from other figures such as USA vice president Kamala Harris in 2023. in 2011By the 21st century, the Stonewall Inn frequently served as a gathering place for the LGBT community, especially after major events that affected LGBT people. These included celebrations in 2011, after the Marriage Equality Act legalized same-sex marriage in New York state; in 2013, after the USA Supreme Court decided in United States v. Windsor to recognize same-sex marriage on the federal level; and in 2015, after the Supreme Court decided in Obergefell v. Hodges to repeal all state bans on same-sex marriage. People have also convened at the bar following negative events. For example, it served as a memorial after dozens of gay men were killed in the 2016 Pulse nightclub shooting, and people protested at the bar in response to anti-LGBT actions taken by the first administration of USA President Donald Trump. The bar has been the site of other LGBT–related events, such as a 2014 announcement by USA interior secretary Sally Jewell on LGBT historic sites and a 2015 gay marriage ceremony. Politicians have used the bar for campaign events, such as when New York City Councilwoman Christine Quinn ran in the 2013 New York City mayoral election.</p><br>
<h2>Advocacy</h2><br>
<p>After Lentz took over the bar, she organized several events in support of LGBT rights, such as a 2013 rally for the legalization of same-sex marriage outside the bar. The organization has received proceeds from the sale of the Stonewall Inn IPA and the sale of objects commemorating the Stonewall riots&#39; 50th anniversary. Stonewall Inn Gives Back Initiative has hosted events such as a 2020 concert co-hosted by German alcohol brand Jägermeister to raise money for nightlife workers. Since 2023, the organization has presented the Stonewall Inn Brick Awards Gala, an event honoring LGBT community leaders.</p><br>
<p>Stonewall Inn Gives Back Initiative also operates a program through which LGBT-friendly events could be designated as "safe spaces". Developed in conjunction with six LGBT groups, by 2023, the program had been translated into multiple languages and was being implemented in other countries.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Aftermath of the riots</h3><br>
<p>Although the Stonewall riots were not the first LGBT protests, they were widely considered a watershed event for the gay liberation movement. Many aspects of gay and lesbian culture from before the riots, such as bar culture formed from decades of shame and secrecy, were forcefully ignored and denied, and people became less afraid of being openly LGBT. The American LGBT community become more visible following the riots, Within two years of the riots, gay-rights groups had been founded all over the USA, such as the Gay Liberation Front and Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries. The riots also inspired the creation of organizations such as the Lesbian Herstory Archives. According to The New York Times, the riots may have influenced gay bars&#39; design, as later gay bars tended to have areas where sexual contact was encouraged.</p><br>
<h4>Neighborhood impact</h4><br>
<p>In part because of the riots at the Stonewall Inn, LGBT businesses began to congregate around Christopher Street. By the early 1970s, other LGBT businesses had opened along the street, even as the bar itself had closed. A commentator for The Advocate wrote in 1972 that the riots had succeeded in associating Christopher Streets name with LGBT culture, while a 1982 Washington Post article described the street, and particularly the bars site, as the "birthplace of the gay rights movement in this country".</p><br>
<p>The bar itself became a symbol of the LGBT community. The New York Times said in 1999 that the Stonewall Inn was "a powerful symbol of resistance". The Stonewall Inn has been contrasted with Julius Bar one block away (where LGBT activists staged sit-ins during the 1960s). For example, the Washington Post wrote in 1994 that Stonewall "seems to belong to another era, one that made the notion of protesting in neckties ludicrous", while The New York Times described Stonewall in 1999 as having more-radical patrons compared with Julius&#39;s. The bar is also a tourist attraction, with thousands of annual visitors. The New York City government advertised the bar as a destination for people visiting LGBT cultural sites in 2009, and Stonewall has also been included on walking tours of LGBT sites.</p><br>
<h4>Commemorations</h4><br>
<p>Christopher Street Liberation Day, on June 28, 1970, marked the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots; it, along with other events hosted the same day in other cities, was the first Gay Pride march in USA history. The Pride march became the inspiration for gay pride parades in the United States and in many other countries. A Gay Pride march has been hosted in New York City on the final Sunday of June since the first parade in 1970, although the main parade did not pass by the Stonewall Inn, a smaller, unofficial group did march near the bar.</p><br>
<p>As part of the Stonewall 45 exhibit in 2014, which commemorated the 45th anniversary of the riots, the Arcus Foundation and Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation (GVSHP) placed posters in the windows of businesses on Christopher Street, including the Stonewall Inn. After the creation of the Stonewall National Monument in 2016, Google.org donated $1 million toward a program to preserve the bar&#39;s history; this became the Stonewall Forever interactive web app, launched in 2019. The bar hosted a rally as part of the Stonewall 50 – WorldPride NYC 2019 event, which took place a half-century after the riots and, with 5 million spectators, was the largest international Pride celebration in history at the time.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark designations</h3><br>
<h4>Historic district and early proposals</h4><br>
<p>Both of the Christopher Street buildings are part of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commissions Greenwich Village Historic District, designated in April 1969, Though the historic district designations provided partial protection to the buildings, they could still be renovated or demolished with the LPCs approval. As early as 1973, the Gay Activists Alliance had advocated for the exterior of the bar to be designated as an individual city landmark. Seventh-day Adventist Kinship International, a support group for LGBT members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, indicated in 1985 that it would seek to have the buildings added to the NRHP as individual landmarks.</p><br>
<h4>National and city designations</h4><br>
<p>In early 1999, thirty years after the riots, the GVSHP and the Organization of Lesbian and Gay Architects and Designers jointly nominated the bar for inclusion on the NRHP. The historian Andrew Dolkart, who prepared the NRHP nomination, included Christopher Park and the surrounding streets in the nomination because of their role in the riots; the officers who had raided the bar were unfamiliar with Greenwich Villages irregular street grid, so they simply chased the crowd down these streets. a label that, at the time, was given to just three percent of all NRHP sites. David Carter compared the NRHP–designated streets to an "important battlefield" in 2002, saying that "you dont want to alter any part of it".</p><br>
<p>The GVSHP began advocating for Stonewall to be designated as an individual city landmark in January 2014, following the demolition of a showroom on Park Avenue, as the group wanted the buildings appearance to be preserved. which was confirmed by the New York City Council later that year. Stonewall was, at the time, one of 50 city landmarks selected specifically for its symbolism, out of the citys 33,000 landmarked structures. The designation preserved the buildings&#39; appearance but did not mandate that they continue to be used as a bar.</p><br>
<p>Efforts to designate the Stonewall Inn as a USA national monument began in the 2010s, and three USA Congress members from New York formally proposed designating the buildings as a national monument in late 2015. Stacy Lentz supported both the city landmark and the national monument designations, calling them important for LGBT history.</p><br>
<p>Stonewall was both the first LGBT cultural site ever added to the NRHP, it was one of 28 NRHP sites nationwide that had been designated specifically because of their LGBT history, out of over 90,000 total NRHP listings.</p><br>
<h3>Namesakes and media</h3><br>
<p>The Stonewall Inn and the subsequent riots inspired the creation of various LGBT–themed works of art, such as music, literature, and visual and performing arts. the label was discontinued in 2002. Other things have been named for the bar and riots, including an LGBT retirement home in Massachusetts, an LGBT-rights organization in Salt Lake City, the British LGBT-rights group Stonewall, and a multi-city sports league. Thomas Garguilo, the bars onetime operator, also created a Facebook page and a website about the bars history.</p><br>
<p>No newsreel or TV footage was taken of the riots, and contemporary news articles did not describe the riot in detail, nor was it reported widely. Some reporters, such as Fred W. McDarrah of The Village Voice and Joseph Ambrosini of the New York Daily News, took a limited number of pictures of the riots and the bar itself. Additional images of the bar during the riots&#39; final day were published in 2009. The few home movies and photographs that do exist have been used in documentaries.</p><br>
<p>The bar itself was described in various works of print media, often in association with the riots. For example, Edmund Whites 1988 semi-autobiographical novel The Beautiful Room is Empty includes a first-hand account of him unintentionally encountering the Stonewall riots. Martin Dubermans 1993 book Stonewall describes the bar and the events leading up to the riots, and David Carter published a book about the bars history, Stonewall: The Riots That Sparked the Gay Revolution, in 2004 for the 35th anniversary of the riots. The bar was the subject of Garguilos 2018 novel Stonewall Revival: Tales Of 53 Christopher Street. and it was described in WNETs 2001 television special A Walk in Greenwich Village. The riots were depicted in movies and theater as well, such as the 1995 comedy film Stonewall, the 2010 documentary Stonewall (which was based on Carters book), the 2012 play Hit the Wall, and the 2015 drama film Stonewall.</p><br>
<p>The Julien Dubuque Bridge is a bridge over the Mississippi River that connects Dubuque, Iowa and East Dubuque, Illinois. The bridge is part of USA Route 20 . It is one of two automobile bridges over the Mississippi in the area , and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Julien Dubuque Bridge is a light grey color. The bridge spans 5,760 ft and is 28 feet wide. The longest span is 845 feet.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For a number of years, people living in the area wanted a bridge to replace the old bridge, which was called either the "High Bridge" or the "Wagon Bridge." However, economic conditions at the time made it difficult to get the financing together to build a new bridge.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, a new bridge became even more important as it would help facilitate military transportation. In 1942, the first parts of the bridge began construction. In 1943, the bridge was completed. It was painted gray to decrease visibility of the bridge for enemies.</p><br>
<p>Because the bridge was financed with bonds, it initially operated as a toll bridge. Money from the tolls was used to repay the debts. Large traffic paid the debts 11 years ahead of schedule and the bridge was toll free by 1954.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1990s, the bridge underwent an extensive renovation. The deck was replaced, and a new walkway was installed. Prior to this renovation, the bridge was dark green; however, it again was painted a light gray that is currently maintained.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the construction of the Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge, the Julien Dubuque Bridge also carried US 61 and US 151. This resulted in both of these highways passing a short distance through Jo Daviess County, Illinois, between Dubuque and Wisconsin. Now both highways cross the Mississippi on the Dubuque–Wisconsin Bridge, which directly connects Wisconsin and Iowa, and neither US 61 nor US 151 passes through Illinois.</p><br>
<p>On June 9, 2008, the bridge was struck by a number of runaway barges shortly after 8 p.m. Fifteen barges—which were loaded with corn, soybeans, and iron ore—struck one of the pillars on the eastern side of the main channel. Unsure of whether the bridge was stable, authorities temporarily closed it until an inspection could be performed. Traffic was rerouted on to the Dubuque–Wisconsin Bridge a few miles to the north.</p><br>
<p>St. Lukes United Methodist Church, also known as St. Lukes Methodist and as St. Luke&#39;s United Methodist, is a historic Richardsonian Romanesque-style church located at 1199 Main Street in Dubuque, Iowa. It was individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998, and as a contributing property in the Upper Main Street Historic District in 2005. It is part of the Iowa Conference of the United Methodist Church.</p><br>
<p>The church has more Tiffany windows than any other church in the state.</p><br>
<p>According to its NRHP nomination, the building is significant for its history in religion in Dubuque, for its Richardsonian Romanesque (unique in Dubuque), and for its Tiffany glass.</p><br>
<h2>National Register listing</h2><br>
<p>Historic Significance: Architecture/Engineering</p><br>
<p>Architect, builder, or engineer: Tiffany Glass and Decorating Co., Kramer, George W.</p><br>
<p>Architectural Style: Romanesque</p><br>
<p>Area of Significance: Art, Architecture</p><br>
<p>Period of Significance: 1875-1899</p><br>
<p>Historic Function: Religion</p><br>
<p>Historic Sub-function: Church Related Residence, Religious Structure</p><br>
<p>Current Function: Commerce/Trade, Religion</p><br>
<p>Current Sub-function: Professional, Religious Structure</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church can trace its origins back to the founding of the city of Dubuque. Barton Randle, preached the first sermon on Iowa soil on November 6, 1833. First services were held in 1833 in a multipurpose log cabin building in what is now Washington Square. Subsequent buildings were built in 1834 (also in what is now Washington Square), 1839 (across the street), 1853 (on Main Street between 11th and 12th Streets), and the current building at the corner of 12th and Main Streets.</p><br>
<p>The present church was built in 1896, and the congregation began worshiping in the building in 1897. The church is noted for their collection of over 100 Tiffany Stained glass windows. It has been called "one of the five finest Religious Tiffany collections in the world." The Angel in the window of the Angel among the Lilies is rumored to bear the likeness of the young deceased daughter of the people who had sponsored that particular window. Since 1990, the church has made an effort to restore and preserve these windows.</p><br>
<p>The pipe organ in the church is also of historic interest. When the Farand and Votey organ was purchased, two train cars were required to bring the parts to Dubuque. Because the train could not get across the river, barges than were used to float the parts over so that they could be installed in the church. The organ has about 1,000 pipes. At the time of installation, it was one of the largest organs in the area, however over the years it has been eclipsed by others. The pipe organ contains 36 ranks or pipes, about 2,200 total and was restored in 1992 by the Fowler Organ Company, Lansing, Michigan.</p><br>
<p>The Town Clock is a large clock that stands in downtown Dubuque, Iowa. The clock has stood over the city for over 140 years. The present clock is the second "Town Clock&quot the first collapsed in the 1870s, killing three people. The building on which it originally stood is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, but the clock tower itself is not.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The First Town Clock</h3><br>
<p>Dr. Asa Horr began the fundraising effort to build a town clock in Dubuque, Iowa in 1864. The clock was built by New York City&#39;s Naylor & Co. and its frame was designed by architect William Longhurst. George D. Wood gave a ten-year lease to the city for the clock to be placed on the John Bell and Company Store building which they owned. The building had originally housed a Congregational church and then "The Odeon", a German theater. That was followed by the post office, and then a concert hall before it became the home of the John Bell Company. This first clock was placed on a tower of the building at a cost of $3,000. All men who had pledged at least $25 formed the Dubuque Town Clock Company to oversee its maintenance.</p><br>
<p>On May 25, 1872, several people noticed cracks forming in the walls of the store building. Workers attempted to clear the location where they expected the clock to fall. At 5:16 PM, both the clock and the John Bell store collapsed, killing a child and two women who were inside the store at the time. An investigation into the matter reported that the foundation of the Bell Store was not sufficient to handle the clock&#39;s weight. It was also reported that construction next door was the primary cause of the accident. Losses from the disaster were estimated to be between $15,000 and $20,000.</p><br>
<h3>The Second Town Clock</h3><br>
<h4>Town Clock Building</h4><br>
<p>Dubuque residents soon decided to replace the collapsed Town Clock. George Wood, who had owned the collapsed building, wanted the new town clock on his property, but John Bell was not interested in being a part of the project. Wood decided to build the new building on his own, while the tower was paid for through subscriptions. He cleared the remainder of the collapsed building and the neighboring Dr. Lay residence. A partnership between architects Fridolin Heer, Sr. and Edward Naescher designed the new building, as well as plans for a new three-story tower. A three-story brick Italianate building was designed to support the tower, which rose 58 ft above the building.</p><br>
<p>The city paid the $5,309.46 cost for the new clock, which began operating on April 17, 1873. The bell, which weighs over 4,200 lb, was cast by Naylor & Co. and the clock was built by Boston firm Howard & Co. Time was recorded via a subterranean transit instrument which was used to observe the passage of stars. This provided accurate time readings to within half of a second and was always kept accurate within two seconds.</p><br>
<p>For a number of years, the clock had a mechanical movement. Two employees spent an hour and a half winding cranks that were attached to the weights, which would allow the clock to operate for one week. In 1923, the Town Clock was almost dismantled when the financial cost of repairs led the city council to decide to remove the clock. However, the council changed their minds when a poll found that a majority of citizens favored keeping and maintaining it. In 1927, the clock was electrified by Interstate Power Company when a new Seth Thomas movement was placed in the clock. Western Union then synchronized the clock.</p><br>
<h4>Urban Renewal</h4><br>
<p>With the urban renewal trend in the 1970s, the "Your Town Clock Committee" was organized. Their goal was to have the clock moved from its location at 825 Main Street to the new Town Clock Plaza, which the city council approved. The cost for the move was $70,000, which was raised through donations raised over a 14-month period.</p><br>
<p>The Durrant Architecture firm of Dubuque designed a pre-caast four-column pedestal that was then placed in the plaza. The actual tower was brought to the site on Feb 12, 1971, and bolted to the pedestal. The faces of the clock were placed at the new location on Feb 16, 1971. Afterwards the cupola was placed at the new site, which completed the move. After the reassembly was complete, the clock stood about 108 feet above the street, which was about two feet taller than at its previous location.</p><br>
<p>The move helped increase the visibility of the Town Clock, where it now served as the centerpiece at special events held at Town Clock Plaza. Otherwise, most of the traffic had moved out to the west end of the city. Main street had become an office park. In 1989, concerns were voiced about vibrations made by loud music and dancers possibly causing damage to the pedestal or the clock. The city studied the problem and stated its confidence that the Town Clock was structurally sound.</p><br>
<h4>Recent events</h4><br>
<p>In recent years, Main Street from Fifth street to Ninth street was reopened to automobile traffic after it was determined that the pedestrian plaza no longer was an effective option for the downtown area. This would have left the Town Clock standing in the middle of Main Street, but a small traffic circle was built around the clock. The clock continues to stand as a distinctive Dubuque landmark. Due to the cold it was frozen at 7:33, however it has been operational year round for several years.</p><br>
<p>The Dubuque County Courthouse is located on Central Avenue, between 7th and 8th Streets, in Dubuque, Iowa, United States. The current structure was built from 1891 to 1893 to replace an earlier building. These are believed to be the only two structures to house the county courts and administrative offices.</p><br>
<p>The courthouse houses several county government offices including the county auditor, treasurer, attorney, and facilities for the Iowa District Court for Dubuque County.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Information about the first courthouse in Dubuque is sparse. The first known attempt at a courthouse were the plans for a two-story log structure in 1836, but it was never built. By 1843 it was decided that the increased private business in Dubuque necessitated an increase in public business. Therefore, the county built a red brick building to house its records and offices. It is possible that this building was already under construction as there are records of expenditures for brick, lumber, lime, ironwork, and architectural fees dating back to 1839. An addition was built onto the front of this building in 1856. By 1869 there was talk of building a new courthouse as the county had outgrown this building and it was considered outdated and ill-shaped. Even after a petition for a new courthouse was presented in 1878, there was no serious movement toward construction until 1890.</p><br>
<p>The United States Congress had authorized the use of Washington Square for the new courthouse, but the choice was made to locate it on the site of the old one. County officials chose local architect Fridolin Heer, designer of Sacred Heart Church and several other notable buildings in the city. Twenty-five year bonds totaling $125,000 were sold in April 1891, and the cornerstone was laid on July 11 of the same year. The building was completed two years later.</p><br>
<p>The Dubuque County Courthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. The adjacent Dubuque County Jail is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Heer designed the structure in the Beaux-Arts style with elements of the Renaissance and the Romanesque styles. It is constructed of Bedford limestone on the first floor and red brick and molded terra cotta on the floors above. The frieze is composed of galvanized iron or zinc. The building has a footprint of 88 x. It is five-stories topped by a central tower surmounted by a 14 ft statue of Justice. All total, the building rises to a height of 213 ft. The interior features the shaft of the tower that terminates on the fourth floor with a dome of stained glass. Woodwork and fittings are of oak with carvings that are done in a Richardsonian character.</p><br>
<h3>Renovations</h3><br>
<p>Renovations were done to the building over the years, especially in the 1980s. Changes include the installation of a glass elevator, a granite fountain was placed on the ground floor, and the entrances into the building were moved to the ground level from the second floor. Gold leaf was applied to the tower dome. Given the various weather conditions, it did not hold and it had to be repaired. The county reevaluated security at the courthouse following the murders of a judge in Georgia and a judge&#39;s family in Illinois. All entrances, but one, were closed and visitors and their possessions were screened.</p><br>
<p>Metairie Cemetery is a historic cemetery in New Orleans, Louisiana, founded in 1872. The name has caused some people to mistakenly presume it is located in Metairie, Louisiana, but it is located within the New Orleans city limits on Metairie Road .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Metairie Course</h3><br>
<h4>1838</h4><br>
<p>Before becoming a cemetery, the site, established on a high-and-dry ridge along Bayou Metairie (now Metairie Road), was a horse racing track, founded in 1838 by Col. James Garrison and Richard AdamsThe Times-Picayune</p><br>
<p>01 Mar 1838, Thu ·Page 3 who acquired the land from the New Orleans Canal and Banking Company. Its first president was Alexander Barrow and board of governors included: George B. Mulligan, Thomas W. Chinn, Balie Peyton, Samuel Jarvis Peters, Thomas J. Wells, George B. Ogden (President of New Orleans Canal and Banking Company), and Miner Kenner.</p><br>
<h4>1839</h4><br>
<p>The Spring Meeting of The Metairie Jockey Club for 1839 over the Metairie Course commenced on Tuesday, March 26, and lasted for six days. The First Day of racing Sweepstakes for 3-year olds, 2 Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $1,000, Forfeit Fee $250, Nine Subscribers: Montfort Wells Beeswing, C.C.S. Farrar, D. Stephensons Dublin, H.A. Tayloe, Minor Kenners Greydoc, Ira Smiths Maria, James S. Garrisons Altorf, William R. Barrows Picayune, James Shy&#39;s Curculia. Same Day, A match between the noted trotting horses Bird and Confidence, 2-mile heats in harnesses for $6,000. Second Day, Wednesday, March 27, Jockey Club Purse $800, 2 Mile Heats. Same Day Sweepstakes for Gentlemen Riders, 2 Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $50, the proprietors to add a silver cup, value $300. Third Day, Jockey Club Purse $1,200, 3 Mile Heats. Fourth Day, Jockey Club Purse $2,000, 4 Mile Heats. Fifth Day, Jockey Club Purse $600, Mile Heats, best 3 in 5. Same Day, Sweepstakes for 2 Year Olds, Mile Heats, Entrance Fee $500, Forfeit Fee $150, seven subscribers:Montfort Wells, A.L. Bingaman, C.C.S. Farrar, W.J. Minor, Minor Kenner, W.R. Barrow, James Shy. Sixth Day, Proprietors Purse, $1,000, 3 Mile Heats. Same Day, Match between the celebrated trotting hosrse Pompeii and Rolla, best 3 in 5, in harness for $1,000. P. CENAS Secretary.</p><br>
<h4>1848</h4><br>
<p>In 1848 Richard Ten Broeck, later part of the syndicate that purchased Lexington, bought the course and likewise established a joint-stock company, officially founding The Metairie Jockey Club.</p><br>
<p>The race track was the site of the famous Lexington-Lecomte Race, April 1, 1854, billed as the "Great States" race. Former President Millard Fillmore attended. While racing was suspended because of the American Civil War, it was used as a Confederate Camp (Camp Moore) until David Farragut took New Orleans for the Union in April 1862. Metairie Cemetery was built upon the grounds of the old Metairie Race Course after it went bankrupt.</p><br>
<h3>Conversion to a cemetery</h3><br>
<p>The race track, which was owned by the Metairie Jockey Club, refused membership to Charles T. Howard, a local resident who had gained his wealth by starting the first Louisiana State Lottery. After being refused membership, Howard vowed that the race course would become a cemetery. After the Civil War and Reconstruction, the track went bankrupt and Howard was able to see his curse come true. Today, Howard is buried in his tomb located on Central Avenue in the cemetery, which was built following the original oval layout of the track itself. Mr. Howard died in 1885 in Dobbs Ferry, New York, when he fell from a newly purchased horse.</p><br>
<p>Metairie Cemetery was previously owned and operated by Stewart Enterprises, Inc., of Jefferson, Louisiana. However, in December 2013, Service Corporation International bought Metairie Cemetery and other Stewart locations.</p><br>
<h2>Sights</h2><br>
<p>Metairie Cemetery has the largest collection of elaborate marble tombs and funeral statuary in the city.</p><br>
<p>One of the most famous is the Army of Tennessee, Louisiana Division monument, a monumental tomb of Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. The monument includes two notable works by sculptor Alexander Doyle (1857–1922):</p><br>
<p>Atop the tomb is an 1877 equestrian statue of General Albert Sidney Johnston on his horse "Fire-eater", holding binoculars in his right hand. General Johnston was for a time entombed here, but the remains were later removed to Texas.</p><br>
<p>To the right of the entrance to the tomb is an 1885 life-size statue represents a Confederate officer about to read the roll of the dead during the American Civil War. The statue is said to be modeled after Sergeant William Brunet of the Louisiana Guard Battery, but is intended to represent all Confederate soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Other notable monuments in Metairie Cemetery include:</p><br>
<p>the pseudo-Egyptian pyramid</p><br>
<p>Laure Beauregard Larendon&#39;s tomb, which features Moorish details and beautiful stained glass</p><br>
<p>the former tomb of Storyville madam Josie Arlington</p><br>
<p>the Moriarty tomb with a marble monument with a height of 60 ft tall, which required the construction of a temporary special spur railroad line to transport the monument&#39;s building materials to the cemetery; and</p><br>
<p>the memorial of 19th-century police chief David Hennessy, whose murder sparked a riot.</p><br>
<p>The initial construction of at least one of these elaborate final resting places – restaurateur Ruth Fertel&#39;s mausoleum – is estimated to have cost between $125,000 to $500,000 (in late 20th century dollars).</p><br>
<h2>List of notable and celebrity burials</h2><br>
<p>Calogero Minacore, also known as "Carlos Joseph Marcello", reputed crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the late-1940s to the early-1980s.</p><br>
<p>Silvestro Carollo, crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the 1920s to the 1940s.</p><br>
<p>Algernon Sidney Badger, New Orleans government official during and after Reconstruction</p><br>
<p>T. L. Bayne, first Tulane University football coach and organizer of first football game in New Orleans</p><br>
<p>Tom Benson, owner of New Orleans Saints and New Orleans Pelicans</p><br>
<p>John Bernecker, stunt performer</p><br>
<p>Renato Cellini, operatic conductor</p><br>
<p>William C. C. Claiborne, first USA governor of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Marguerite Clark, stage and silent film actress</p><br>
<p>Lewis Strong Clarke, sugar planter and Republican politician</p><br>
<p>Isaac Cline, chief meteorologist at the Galveston, Texas, office of the US Weather Bureau from 1889 to 1901. In that role, he became an integral figure in the devastating Galveston Hurricane of 1900.</p><br>
<p>Hamilton D. Coleman, a businessman who held Louisiana&#39;s 2nd congressional district seat from 1889 to 1891. He was the last Republican member of the USA House from Louisiana until 1973.</p><br>
<p>Al Copeland, founder of Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Cortlandt Curtis Jr., architect, founder of Curtis and Davis Architects and Engineers.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson Davis was buried at Metairie Cemetery, but his remains were later moved to Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Dell, film actress of the 1930s</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Dix, advice columnist</p><br>
<p>Charles E. Dunbar, New Orleans attorney and civil service reformer</p><br>
<p>Charles E. Fenner, founder of brokerage house that became part of Merrill Lynch, Pearce, Fenner, & Smith</p><br>
<p>Joachim O. Fernández, USA representative from Louisiana&#39;s 1st congressional district from 1931 to 1941</p><br>
<p>Ruth U. Fertel, founder of Ruth&#39;s Chris Steak House</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Flanders, Reconstruction-era state governor and New Orleans mayor</p><br>
<p>Jim Garrison, New Orleans district attorney</p><br>
<p>Edward James Gay III, USA senator</p><br>
<p>Michael Hahn, speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives and governor of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>William W. Heard, governor of Louisiana from 1900 to 1904</p><br>
<p>William G. Helis Sr., American oilman, racehorse/owner breeder</p><br>
<p>Andrew Higgins, inventor of the "Higgins Boat"</p><br>
<p>Al Hirt, jazz trumpeter</p><br>
<p>Ken Hollis, state senator from Jefferson Parish</p><br>
<p>John Bell Hood, Confederate general</p><br>
<p>Chapman H. Hyams, stockbroker, businessman and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>John E. Jackson Sr., New Orleans lawyer and state Republican chairman from 1929 to 1934</p><br>
<p>Grace King, author</p><br>
<p>Richard W. Leche, governor of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Harry Lee, sheriff of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Samuel D. McEnery, governor of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Louis H. Marrero, Jefferson Parish Police juror & president, Jefferson Parish sheriff, senator, Lafourche Basin Levee Board</p><br>
<p>John Albert Morris, the "Lottery King"</p><br>
<p>deLesseps Story "Chep" Morrison Sr., mayor of New Orleans</p><br>
<p>deLesseps Story "Toni" Morrison Jr., state legislator from Orleans Parish</p><br>
<p>Isidore Newman, New Orleans philanthropist and founder of the Maison Blanche department store chain and the regarded Isidore Newman School</p><br>
<p>Elwyn Nicholson, state senator from 1972 to 1988, grocery store owner</p><br>
<p>Margaret Norvell, lighthouse keeper and namesake of the coastguard cutter USCGC Margaret Norvell</p><br>
<p>Lionel Ott, member of the Louisiana State Senate from 1940 to 1945 and the last New Orleans finance commissioner from 1946 to 1954</p><br>
<p>Mel Ott, Hall of Fame Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>Benjamin M. Palmer, pastor of First Presbyterian Church of New Orleans (1856–1902)</p><br>
<p>John M. Parker, governor of Louisiana</p><br>
<p>P. B. S. Pinchback, first African American governor of Louisiana 1872–73</p><br>
<p>P. G. T. Beauregard, a Confederate General who started the American Civil War (1861-1865), Superintendent of West Point (1861)</p><br>
<p>Louis Prima, bandleader</p><br>
<p>Stan Rice, poet</p><br>
<p>Anne Rice, author</p><br>
<p>John Leonard Riddell, melter and refiner of Mint 1839–1848, Postmaster 1859–1862, inventor of the binocular microscope</p><br>
<p>John G. Schwegmann, supermarket pioneer and member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature</p><br>
<p>James Z. Spearing, USA representative, 1924–1931, from Louisiana&#39;s 2nd congressional district</p><br>
<p>Edgar B. Stern, businessman and civic leader; founder of WDSU-TV</p><br>
<p>Edith Rosenwald Stern, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Norman Treigle, opera star</p><br>
<p>Helen Turner, painter</p><br>
<p>Cora Witherspoon, stage and screen character actress</p><br>
<p>The Horseshoe Curve is a three-track railroad curve on Norfolk Southern Railway&#39;s Pittsburgh Line in Blair County, Pennsylvania. The curve is roughly 2,375 ft long and 1,300 ft in diameter. Completed in 1854 by the Pennsylvania Railroad as a way to reduce the westbound grade to the summit of the Allegheny Mountains, it replaced the time-consuming Allegheny Portage Railroad, which was the only other route across the mountains for large vehicles. The curve was later owned and used by three Pennsylvania Railroad successors: Penn Central, Conrail, and Norfolk Southern.</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Curve has long been a tourist attraction. A trackside observation park was completed in 1879. The park was renovated and a visitor center built in the early 1990s. The Railroaders Memorial Museum in Altoona manages the center, which has exhibits pertaining to the curve. The Horseshoe Curve was added to the National Register of Historic Places and designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966. It became a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Location and design</h2><br>
<p>Horseshoe Curve is 5 mi west of Altoona, Pennsylvania, in Logan Township, Blair County. It sits at railroad milepost 242 on the Pittsburgh Line, which is the Norfolk Southern Railway Pittsburgh Division main line between Pittsburgh and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Horseshoe Curve bends around a dam and lake, the highest of three Altoona Water Authority reservoirs that supply water from the valley to the city. It spans two ravines formed by creeks: Kittanning Run, on the north side of the valley, and Glenwhite Run, on the south. The Blair County Veterans Memorial Highway (SR 4008) follows the valley west from Altoona and tunnels under the curve.</p><br>
<p>Westbound trains climb a maximum grade of 1.85 percent for 12 mi from Altoona to Gallitzin. Just west of the Gallitzin Tunnels, trains pass the summit of the Allegheny Mountains, then descend for 25 mi to Johnstown on a grade of 1.1 percent or less. The overall grade of the curve was listed by the Pennsylvania Railroad as 1.45 percent; it is listed as 1.34 percent by Norfolk Southern.</p><br>
<p>The rise of a westbound train through the curve can be described in several ways. One measurement is from the point where the rails north of the curve start to bow out to a point on the line directly south, across the original Kittanning Reservoir: across this north–south distance of 1,119 ft, a train rises from 1,601 ft above sea level to 1,660 ft.</p><br>
<p>Another measurement is from the point where the rails coming west out of Altoona make their first detour north to the curve, to a point across Lake Altoona where the rails begin their one-mile straight run south before turning west to the Gallitzin Tunnels; this measurement encompasses the entire Curve structure, including both reservoirs built in its bounds to protect the curve from flooding. Across this north-south distance of 1,006 ft, a westbound train rises from 1,473 ft to 1,706 ft. This latter rise—133 vertical feet in 1,006 linear feet—is a 13.2% grade, completely unascendable by conventional railroads, which usually stick to grades of 2.2% or less.</p><br>
<p>Each track consists of 136 lb/yd, welded rail. Before dieselization and the introduction of dynamic braking and rail oilers, the rails along the curve were transposed—left to right and vice versa—to equalize the wear on each rail from the flanges of passing steam locomotives and rail cars, thereby extending their life.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origin</h3><br>
<p>In 1834, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania built the Allegheny Portage Railroad across the Allegheny Mountains to connect Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, as part of the Main Line of Public Works. The Portage Railroad was a series of canals and inclined planes and remained in use until the mid-19th century. The Pennsylvania Railroad was incorporated in 1847 to build a railroad from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh, replacing the cumbersome Portage Railroad.</p><br>
<p>Using surveys completed in 1842, the state&#39;s engineers recommended an 84 mi route west from Lewistown that followed the ridges with a maximum grade of 0.852 percent. But the Chief Engineer for the Pennsylvania Railroad, John Edgar Thomson, chose a route on lower, flatter terrain along the Juniata River and accepted a steeper grade west of Altoona. The valley west of Altoona was split into two ravines by a mountain; surveys had already found a route with an acceptable grade east from Gallitzin to the south side of the valley, and the proposed Horseshoe Curve would allow the same grade to continue to Altoona.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Work on Horseshoe Curve began in 1850. It was done without heavy equipment, only men "with picks and shovels, horses and drags". Engineers built an earth fill over the first ravine encountered while ascending, formed by Kittanning Run, cut the point of the mountain between the ravines, and filled in the second ravine, formed by Glenwhite Run. The 31.1 mi line between Altoona and Johnstown, including Horseshoe Curve, opened on February 15, 1854. The total cost was $2,495,000 or $80,225 per mile ($49,850 /km).</p><br>
<p>In 1879, the remaining part of the mountain inside the curve was leveled to allow the construction of a park and observation area&mdash;the first built for viewing trains. As demand for train travel increased, a third track was added to the curve in 1898 and a fourth was added two years later.</p><br>
<p>From around the 1860s to just before World War II, passengers could ride to the PRR&#39;s Kittanning Point station near the curve. The Pennsylvania Railroad delivered empty hopper cars to the Kittanning Point station which the two railroads returned loaded with coal. In the early 1900s, locomotives could take on fuel and water at a coal trestle on a spur track across from the station.</p><br>
<p>A reservoir was built at the apex of the Horseshoe Curve in 1887 for Altoona; a second reservoir, below the first, was finished in 1896. A third reservoir, Lake Altoona, was completed by 1913. A macadam road to the curve was opened in 1932 allowing access for visitors, and a gift shop was built in 1940.</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Curve was depicted in brochures, calendars and other promotional material; Pennsylvania Railroad stock certificates were printed with a vignette of it. The Pennsylvania pitted the scenery of Horseshoe Curve against rival New York Central Railroads "Water Level Route" during the 1890s. A raised-relief, scale model of the curve was included as part of the Pennsylvania Railroads exhibit at the 1893 World&#39;s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Pennsylvania Railroad conductors were told to announce the Horseshoe Curve to daytime passengers&mdash;a tradition that continues aboard Amtrak trains.</p><br>
<h3>World War II and post-war</h3><br>
<p>During World War II, the PRR carried troops and materiel for the Allied war effort, and the curve was under armed guard. The military intelligence arm of Nazi Germany, the Abwehr, plotted to sabotage important industrial assets in the United States in a project code-named Operation Pastorius. In June 1942, four men were brought by submarine and landed on Long Island, planning to destroy such sites as the curve, Hell Gate Bridge, Alcoa aluminum factories and locks on the Ohio River. The would-be saboteurs were quickly apprehended by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after one, George John Dasch, turned himself in. All but Dasch and one other would-be saboteur were executed as spies and saboteurs.</p><br>
<p>Train count peaked in the 1940s with over 50 passenger trains per day, along with many freight and military trains. Demand for train travel dropped greatly after World War II, as highway and air travel became popular.</p><br>
<p>During the 1954 celebration of the centennial of the opening of Horseshoe Curve, a night photo was arranged by Sylvania Electric Products using 6,000 flashbulbs and 31 mi of wiring to illuminate the area. The event also commemorated the 75th anniversary of the incandescent light bulb. Pennsylvania steam locomotive 1361 was placed at the park inside the Horseshoe Curve on June 8, 1957. It is one of 425 K4s-class engines: the principal passenger locomotives on the Pennsylvania Railroad that regularly plied the curve. The Horseshoe Curve was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was designated a National Historic Landmark on November 13, 1966. The operation of the observation park was transferred to the city of Altoona the same year. The Pennsylvania Railroad was combined with the New York Central Railroad in 1968. The merger created Penn Central, which went bankrupt in 1970 and was taken over by the federal government in 1976, as part of the merger that created Conrail. The second track from the inside at the Horseshoe Curve was removed by Conrail in 1981. The K4s 1361 was removed from the curve for a restoration to working order in September 1985 and was replaced with the ex-Conrail EMD GP9 diesel-electric locomotive 7048 that was repainted into a Pennsylvania Railroad scheme.</p><br>
<p>Starting in June 1990, the park at the Horseshoe Curve underwent a $5.8 million renovation funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and by the National Park Service through its "America&#39;s Industrial Heritage Project". The renovations were completed in April 1992 with the dedication of a new visitor center. It was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Current operations</h2><br>
<p>The curve remains busy as part of Norfolk Southerns Pittsburgh Line:, it was passed by 51 scheduled freight trains each day, not including locals and helper engines, which can double the number. Coupled to the rear of long trains, helper engines add power going up and help to brake coming down. For some years before 2020, Norfolk Southern used SD40Es as helpers; since then, 4,300 hp EMD SD70ACU locomotives are used. In 2012, Norfolk Southern said annual traffic passing Horseshoe Curve was 111.8 e6ST, including locomotives. Amtraks Pennsylvanian between Pittsburgh and New York City rounds the curve once each way daily. Maximum speeds for trains at Horseshoe Curve are 30 mph for freight and about 35 mph for passenger trains.</p><br>
<h2>Trackside attractions</h2><br>
<p>The Railroaders Memorial Museum in Altoona manages a visitor center next to the curve. The 6,800 ft&sup2; center has historical artifacts and memorabilia relating to the curve and a raised-relief map of the Altoona&ndash;Johnstown area. Access to the curve is by a 288 ft funicular or a 194-step stairway. The funicular is single-tracked, with the cars passing each other halfway up the slope; the cars are painted to resemble Pennsylvania Railroad passenger cars. A former "watchman&#39;s shanty" is in the park.</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Curve is popular with railfans; watchers can sometimes see three trains passing at once. In August 2012, the former Nickel Plate Road (NKP) steam locomotive No. 765 traversed Horseshoe Curve: the first steam locomotive to do so since 1977, while deadheading to and from Harrisburg as part of Norfolk Southern&#39;s 21st Century Steam program. NKP 765 returned to the curve in May 2013 with public excursion trains from Lewistown to Gallitzin.</p><br>
<p>The Allegheny Portage Railroad was the first railroad constructed through the Allegheny Mountains in central Pennsylvania. It operated from 1834 to 1854 as the first transportation infrastructure through the gaps of the Allegheny that connected the midwest to the eastern seaboard across the barrier range of the Allegheny Front. Approximately 36 mi long overall, both ends connected to the Pennsylvania Canal, and the system was primarily used as a portage railway, hauling river boats and barges over the divide between the Ohio and the Susquehanna Rivers. Today, the remains of the railroad are preserved within the Allegheny Portage Railroad National Historic Site operated by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>The railroad was authorized as part of the Main Line of Public Works legislation in 1824. It had five inclines on either side of the drainage divide running athwart the ridge line from Blair Gap through along the kinked saddle at the summit into Cresson, Pennsylvania. The endpoints connected to the Canal at Johnstown on the west through the relative flats to Hollidaysburg on the east. The Railroad utilized cleverly designed wheeled barges to ride a narrow-gauge rail track with steam-powered stationary engines lifting the vehicles. The roadbed of the railroad did not incline monotonically upwards, but rose in relatively long, saw-toothed stretches of slightly-sloped flat terrain suitable to animal powered towing, alternating with steep cable railway inclined planes using static steam engine powered windlasses, similar to mechanisms of modern ski lifts.</p><br>
<p>Except for peak moments of severe storms, it was an all-weather, all-seasons operation. Along with the rest of the Main Works, it cut transport time from Philadelphia to the Ohio River from weeks to just 3–5 days. Considered a technological marvel in its day, it played a critical role in opening the interior of the United States beyond the Appalachian Mountains to settlement and commerce. It included the first railroad tunnel in the United States, the Staple Bend Tunnel, and its inauguration was marked with great fanfare.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the Old Portage Railroad from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, thirty six miles long, began in 1831 and took three years to complete. It included a tunnel 900 ft long as well as a viaduct over the Little Conemaugh River upstream from Johnstown. The vertical ascent from Johnstown was 1,172 ft. The vertical ascent from Hollidaysburg was 1,399 ft. The project was financed by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as a means to compete with the Erie Canal in New York and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in Maryland. The work was done largely through private contractors. The railroad utilized eleven grade lines and ten cable inclined planes, five on either side of the summit of the Allegheny Ridge, to carry loaded canal boats on flatbed railroad cars. Trains of two-three cars were pulled on grade lines by mules. On inclined planes, stationary steam engines pulled up and lowered down cars by hemp ropes switching to wire ropes in 1842.</p><br>
<p>The entire Main Line system connecting Philadelphia and Pittsburgh via the Philadelphia-Columbia railroad, the Columbia-Hollidaysburg canal, the Portage railroad linking Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, and a canal from Johnstown to Pittsburgh, was 400 mi long. A typical ride took 4 days instead of the former 23-day horse-wagon journey. The Old Portage Railroad was in operation for twenty years being considered "the wonder of America." Charles Dickens wrote a contemporary account of travel on the railroad in Chapter 10 of his American Notes. Quoted at length in the Pennsylvania guide, Dickens "described travel on the Portage in 1842," describing aspects of the Portage Railroad&#39;s immediate social and geographic context, as well as mechanical strategies used by the Railroad for coping with the steep grades encountered on the route :</p><br>
<p>In the 1850s, the Main Line of Public Works and its portage railroad was rendered obsolete by the advance of railway technology and railroad engineering. Early in 1846 the Legislature chartered the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) to cross the entire state in response to plans by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad to reach the Ohio Valley through Virginia. In December 1852 trains started to run between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh shortening the travel time from 4 days to 13 hours.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the New Portage Railroad, a 40-mile realignment to cross the Allegheny Ridge bypassing inclines, started in 1851 and cost $2.14 million. The PRR raised sufficient investment and had enough quick success that they bought the existing Portage railroad and other parts of the Main Line of Public Works from the state on July 31, 1857. The PRR abandoned most of the line and used the rest as local branches; "anything of value was either sold or stripped from the Allegheny Portage Railroad."</p><br>
<p>Nearly half a century later, the graded roadbeds of the descending section east of the Gallitzin Tunnel were re-railed with standard gauge freight tracks. The line reopened as a freight bypass line in 1904.</p><br>
<p>Pennsylvania Railroad successor Conrail abandoned this line to Hollidaysburg and most of the branch trackage along the Juniata River in 1981 and removed the rails.</p><br>
<p>The Allegheny Portage Railroad was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1987.</p><br>
<h2>National Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>The National Historic Site was established on 1,296 acre in 1964 and is about 12 mi west of Altoona, in Blair and Cambria counties.</p><br>
<p>The park service operates a visitor center with interpretive exhibits near the old line. Nearby is the Samuel Lemon House, a tavern located alongside the railroad near Cresson that was a popular stop for railroad passengers; it has been converted into a historical museum by the National Park Service. The NPS also maintains a length of reconstructed track, an engine house with exhibits, a picnic area, and hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>A skew arch bridge, a masterwork of cut stone construction, is another feature of the site near the Lemon House. The bridge is 60.4 ft long on the south elevation, 54.9 ft long on the north elevation, and 22.2 ft high. It was the only bridge on the line that was built to carry a road.</p><br>
<p>The Staple Bend Tunnel is preserved in a separate unit of the historic site, 5 mi east of Johnstown.</p><br>
<p>Saint Mary&#39;s Catholic Church is a former parish of the Archdiocese of Dubuque. The church is located in Dubuque, Iowa, United States, at the corner of 15th and White Streets. The church is recognizable by its steeple– one of the tallest in the area. The church property was added to the National Register of Historic Places as an historic district in 2015, and the various buildings were included as contributing properties in the Washington Residential Historic District later in the same year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The beginning</h3><br>
<p>During the 1840s, a number of German families moved to the city of Dubuque. Many of these families were Catholic. Initially, they attended Mass at St. Raphael&#39;s Cathedral. However, the cathedral was becoming quite crowded due to the growing German and Irish populations of the city. Also, Bishop Mathias Loras was having difficulty ensuring that the German families were adequately cared for.</p><br>
<p>In 1849, Bishop Loras granted permission for 40 German families to form a new parish. Gerhard Hueckels donated land at the corner of 8th and White Streets in Dubuque. In 1850, a church was built on the land. This church, named Holy Trinity, was built of native stone with a tower about twenty feet tall.</p><br>
<p>For the first few years, there was a lack of priests in the still-young diocese. The people of Holy Trinity parish were served at first by a missionary, Father Gerhard Plathe. Finally, in 1853, they were given a resident priest, Father William Edmonds.</p><br>
<p>Soon the first major influx of German immigrants occurred. The small Holy Trinity church was filled to capacity. In 1863, the pastor, Father George Fendrick, and members of the parish founded the "German Roman Catholic Association of Dubuque." Their goal was to build a new church to support the parish - which now had over 300 families. At first, they attempted to purchase the Presbyterian Seminary in Dubuque for $15,000. After other Christian denominations opposed this plan, the group instead purchased an orchard for $3,000. This site, about seven blocks north of the Holy Trinity Church, is the site of the current church.</p><br>
<h3>Construction of the new St. Mary&#39;s Church</h3><br>
<p>In 1864, construction was begun on the new church. The plans were designed by the architect John Mullany, who had designed the present Cathedral building. Father Aloysius Meis directed the construction. The new building was done in Gothic Architecture style.</p><br>
<p>As with many other churches during the 19th century, most of the excavation and construction work was done by the men of the parish. By the time the foundation was complete in September 1864, only $3.03 was left in the treasury. The remaining $80,000 needed to finish the church was brought in through more fundraising and additional donations.</p><br>
<h3>From 1867 to 1922</h3><br>
<p>On February 10, 1867, Bishop John Hennessy dedicated the new St. Marys Church. Over the next 55 years, the population of Dubuque continued to grow. This was especially true in the 1880s with the arrival of the Milwaukee Railroad shops. St. Marys was the mother parish of four other area parishes. Sacred Heart was established in 1879, followed by Holy Ghost in 1896. In 1910, a new Holy Trinity Church was built near Eagle Point Park in Dubuque in memory of the first church in Dubuque to carry that name. Finally in 1922, Nativity parish was built near what today is called Loras College.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1870s, the Hook and Hastings Company - a prominent 19th century organ builder - installed an organ in the choir loft. This organ was placed in a visually impressive case. The organ was significantly altered by the Lima Pipe Organ Company of Elida, Ohio, in 1965; the case and most of the pipes were retained, augmented by all new mechanism (including windchests constructed of aluminum) and several additional ranks of pipes. It currently has three manuals and 33 stops.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary was extended in 1911, followed by the construction of two small chapels at the rear of the church. In 1914, stained glass windows built in Bavaria were installed in the church, though the shipment of the windows was nearly stopped because of the outbreak of World War I. Twelve large stained glass windows honor the Blessed Virgin Mary, and a large mural of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary was painted behind the altar, because the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the patron saint of the parish.</p><br>
<h3>From 1922 to the present</h3><br>
<p>In 1935, Father Aloysius Schmitt was ordained in Rome, Italy. He returned to the United States, and his first assignment was as an associate at Saint Mary&#39;s Church. In 1941, he was killed in the attack at Pearl Harbor, becoming the first American chaplain of any faith to die in the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, the reforms of the Second Vatican Council were implemented. The parish removed the communion rail and placed a new altar in the sanctuary that faced the congregation. However, the original high and side altars were left largely intact.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, St. Marys Church had combined efforts with the nearby St. Patricks Church. The two parishes shared administrative staff and school facilities. The parish has been affected by the Priest shortage and a decline in membership as some families moved to suburban locations. The parish had a priest to lead Mass, but most of the administrative work was handled by a lay woman minister, the wife of a former USA Representative who is a deacon.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, St. Mary&#39;s built a new handicapped entrance. This entrance is located at the northeast corner of the church and has an elevator. Before that, the church was not as accessible as other churches in the area.</p><br>
<p>With a heavy debt load and a declining membership, the parish council recommended to the Archdiocese that the parish be closed. In late 2009 it was announced that the parish would be closed. On May 25, 2010, St. Mary&#39;s held its final mass as a Catholic parish with 700 attendees. The building is still considered a church, but the parish is no longer active.</p><br>
<p>The movie F.I.S.T., which was largely filmed in Dubuque, had a scene which featured exterior shots of St. Mary&#39;s Church.</p><br>
<p>A book entitled "St. Marys: Finest church west of the Mississippi" covering the complete history of the church was published in August 2010. In 2014 a conceptual plan (but no timeline or cost estimate) to renovate the campus to provide office space for small businesses, a community kitchen and 12 units of low income housing was jointly announced by the Dubuque Archdiocese, non-Catholic community groups such as Dubuque&#39;s Economic Development Department and the Washington Neighborhood Corporation, and Dubuque-based Gronen Restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>St. Marys School merged with St. Patricks Catholic School to form Downtown Catholic School in 1982. The organization Holy Family Catholic Schools took control of Downtown Catholic and other Dubuque-area Catholic schools in 2001. Downtown Catholic and Sacred Heart – Holy Trinity School became St. Francis School in 2002, and St. Francis closed in 2004. Four Oaks Family and Children Services bought the school building in 2006.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mackinac is a former British and American military outpost garrisoned from the late 18th century to the late 19th century in the city of Mackinac Island, Michigan, on Mackinac Island. The British built the fort during the American Revolutionary War to control the strategic Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and by extension the fur trade on the Great Lakes. The British did not relinquish the fort until thirteen years after the end of the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mackinac later became the scene of two strategic battles for control of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812. During most of the 19th century, it served as an outpost of the United States Army. Closed in 1895, the fort has been adapted as a museum on the grounds of Mackinac Island State Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>American Revolutionary War</h3><br>
<p>Before 1763, the French used Fort Michilimackinac on the mainland south shore of the Straits of Mackinac to control the area. After the Treaty of Paris (1763), the British occupied the French fort but considered the wooden structure too difficult to defend. In 1780/1781, its lieutenant governor Patrick Sinclair constructed a new limestone fort on the 150 ft limestone bluffs of Mackinac Island above the Straits of Mackinac. The British held the outpost throughout the American Revolutionary War. Captain Daniel Robertson commanded the garrison on Mackinac Island from 1782 to his replacement in 1784 by Lieutenant George Clowes. Despite the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783), the British did not officially relinquish the fort to the United States until 1796.</p><br>
<h3>War of 1812</h3><br>
<p>In June 1812, British Major-General Isaac Brock heard that America had declared war and sent a canoe party 1,200 mi to Fort St. Joseph, Ontario to confirm that a state of war existed. This party returned with an order to attack Fort Mackinac, then known as Fort Michilimackinac.</p><br>
<p>A minimal United States garrison of approximately sixty men under the command of Lieutenant Porter Hanks then manned Fort Mackinac. Although a diligent officer, Hanks had received no communication from his superiors for months. On the morning of July 17, 1812, a combined British and Native American force of seventy war canoes and ten bateaux under the command of British Captain Charles Roberts attacked Fort Mackinac. Roberts came from Fort St. Joseph and landed on the north end of Mackinac Island, 2 mi from the fort. The British removed the village inhabitants from their homes and trained their two 6-pounder iron cannons at the fort. The Americans, under Lieutenant Hanks, were taken by surprise and Hanks perceived his garrison was badly outnumbered. The officers and men under Roberts numbered about two hundred (including 180 Canadians); a few hundred Native Americans of various tribes supported him.</p><br>
<p>Fearing that the Native Americans on the British side would massacre his men and allies, Lieutenant Hanks accepted the British offer of surrender without a fight. The British paroled the American forces, essentially allowing them to go free after swearing to not take up arms in the war again. They made the island inhabitants swear an oath of allegiance as subjects of the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the British captured the fort, two American vessels arrived from Fort Dearborn (Chicago), unaware of the start of the War of 1812, or the fort&#39;s capture by British forces. The British raised the American flag and when the vessels tied up at the pier, the British captured the two sloops as prizes of war. The ships were Erie (Captain Norton) and (Captain Lee), the latter being taken by the British into service as. The schooners Mary and Salina, anchored at port, were sent by the British to Detroit as cartels carrying the prisoners they had taken.</p><br>
<p>After capturing the island, the British under the command of Colonel Robert McDouall of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment built Fort George, a stockade and blockhouse on the highest point of the island, to prevent the Americans from re-capturing the island using the same strategy. Lieutenant Hanks made his way to Detroit and the American military post there. Upon his arrival, superiors charged him with cowardice in the surrender of Fort Mackinac. Before the court martial of Lieutenant Hanks could begin, British forces attacked Fort Detroit. A British cannonball ripped through the room where Hanks was standing, cutting him in half and killing the officer next to him as well.</p><br>
<p>United States Army Colonel George Croghan and his superior General William Henry Harrison designed a campaign to take control of the Great Lakes and sever the fur trade alliance between the British and the tribes of the region; as part of this campaign, the Americans attempted to retake Mackinac Island in July 1814. The two-pronged campaign also included an assault on Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, located on the upper Mississippi River.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Mackinac Island (1814)</h3><br>
<p>On July 26, 1814, a squadron of five United States ships arrived off Mackinac Island, carrying a landing force of 700 soldiers under the command of Colonel Croghan. This landing began the Battle of Mackinac Island. To his dismay, Colonel Croghan discovered that the new British blockhouse stood too high for the naval guns to reach, forcing an unprotected assault on the wall of Fort George. The Americans shelled Fort George for two days with most shells falling harmlessly in vegetable gardens around the fort.</p><br>
<p>A dense fog forced the Americans back from Mackinac Island for a week. Major Andrew Holmes led the American forces in returning; they landed at the north end of the island near the location of the British assault in 1812. The Americans worked their way to the fort through dense woods, which Native American allies of the British protected, finally emerging into a clearing below Fort George.</p><br>
<p>Colonel McDouall had placed a small force bearing muskets, rifles, and two field guns behind low breastworks at the opposite end of the clearing. When the Americans emerged from the woods into the clearing, the British guns targeted them easily. British forces killed 13 Americans, including Major Holmes and two other officers, and wounded 51 others. The heavy losses compelled Colonel Croghan to order his men to retreat back through the woods to the beach. The Americans rowed back to their ships and retreated.</p><br>
<p>The American defeat in the Battle of Mackinac Island left the island and its forts in the hands of the British through the end of the War of 1812. Following the Treaty of Ghent, American forces reoccupied Fort Mackinac in July 1815. They renamed Fort George as Fort Holmes, in honor of Major Holmes, killed in the 1814 attack. After the War of 1812 and settlement of the northern border and tensions with Britain, Fort Mackinac gradually declined in military significance.</p><br>
<h3>Later years</h3><br>
<p>No longer needed as a front line border defense against the British in Canada, the fort was used as a strategic troop reserve. The Army essentially could deploy troops to Fort Mackinac until a need arose to transfer them to other locations of military importance. The Army nearly abandoned Fort Mackinac between such uses. It was also used as a fur trading post, as Mackinac Island was an important fur post. From 1816 to 1821 the post was commanded by Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, the older brother of President Franklin Pierce. He married the daughter of Magdelaine Laframboise, a prominent fur trader of Ojibwe and French descent.</p><br>
<p>On June 6, 1822, a fur trader named Alexis St. Martin waited to trade in his furs when a gun accidentally discharged just inches from him, blowing a hole in his abdomen. The post surgeon, Doctor William Beaumont, attended to him. Dr. Beaumont cared for the presumably doomed St. Martin the best he could. To his surprise, the man appeared to make a recovery. Beaumont took St. Martin into his home, caring for him for several years. St. Martin healed although his stomach had a hole. Beaumont seized the opportunity and began observing and conducting experiments on the man. Through these experiments, Beaumont described the process of digestion in detail, unlocking its mysteries. Beaumont wrote a book about his experiments and later became known as "The Father of Gastric Physiology."</p><br>
<p>The fort developed as an important staging area for US exploration of the northern Michigan Territory, including the expedition in 1820 under the command of Lewis Cass to explore the headwaters of the Mississippi River. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft held the post of United States Indian agent at Fort Mackinac for a time in the 1830s. He did extensive study of the Native American languages and culture of the region, aided by his marriage to Jane Johnston, the Ojibwe-British daughter of John Johnston, a wealthy British fur trader at Sault Ste. Marie. Both her parents&#39; families were prominent among the elite of the region.</p><br>
<p>During the Mexican–American War and for long periods during the Civil War, the Army left the care and upkeep of Fort Mackinac to an ordnance sergeant. Despite these periods of relative inactivity, the fort played a small role in the Civil War, briefly used as a prison for three Confederate political prisoners. Brought to Mackinac Island and the fort during the summer months, these three men enjoyed relative freedom, guarded only by a volunteer militia. When faced with the prospect of enduring a long, harsh winter on the island, two of the prisoners signed loyalty oaths and obtained release. The third Confederate refused, and the Army ultimately transferred him to another post.</p><br>
<p>Seth Eastman, an officer and artist in the United States Army, in 1872 made an oil painting of Fort Mackinac, as a commission by the US Congress of paintings of military forts. It is now part of the collection of the United States Senate. His more important work was to illustrate Henry Rowe Schoolcraft&#39;s six-volume history of the American Indians, commissioned by Congress in the 1850s.</p><br>
<h3>Mackinac National Park</h3><br>
<p>From 1875 to 1895, Mackinac National Park, the second national park in the United States after Yellowstone National Park, included Fort Mackinac and much of Mackinac Island. During the national park years, the troops stationed at Mackinac acted as park rangers. The Army tasked these men with maintaining the park, so they spent much time cutting new roads and footpaths through the park.</p><br>
<p>To improve conditions and boost morale, the Army constructed a bathhouse at the fort (in which every man at the fort was required to bathe at least once a week), a post toilet (complete with flush toilets), and a post canteen (where the men could read current magazines, play pool, and buy beer and wine). They wanted Fort Mackinac to be a "desirable station." Soldiers also had regular military duties, drilling on the parade ground and taking target practice at least once a week on either a 600- or 1000-yard rifle range. The skills learned at the fort later proved important for many troops who were posted at other locations in the still-dangerous American West.</p><br>
<h2>Decommissioning</h2><br>
<h3>State administration</h3><br>
<p>In 1895, Congress closed Fort Mackinac and Mackinac National Park. It transferred the fort and park to the State of Michigan, which created Mackinac Island State Park, the first state park in Michigan. The semi-autonomous Mackinac Island State Park Commission in 1895 began governing Fort Mackinac and the other surrounding historic sites on or near Mackinac Island: Colonial Michilimackinac, Historic Mill Creek, the Old Mackinac Point Lighthouse, and Mackinac Island State Park. The Governor of Michigan appoints members of the commission, who meet many times during the course of a year to govern Mackinac State Historic Parks. The commission and historic parks preserve, protect, and present the rich and natural history of Mackinac Island and the Straits area.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, Mackinac Island State Park Commission developed a new way of financing its park, based on the system that financed the Mackinac Bridge. Michigan financed construction of Mackinac Bridge through revenue bonds repaid from the cash flow of toll fees from the bridge after it opened in 1957. Mackinac Island State Park Commission modified this idea for park restoration purposes, with Fort Mackinac admission fees serving as the cash flow. More than three-fourths of budget of Mackinac Island State Park Commission now comes from admission fees and other self-generated cash flow. Most United States parks-and-recreation agencies instead depend upon public subsidies. Mackinac Island State Park Commission operates one of the largest parks in United States that generates a significant majority of its own operating budget.</p><br>
<h3>The Fort today</h3><br>
<p>The current museum at the park includes 14 historic buildings.</p><br>
<p>Today, Fort Mackinac is a popular heritage tourist destination. Situated on 150-foot bluffs above the Straits of Mackinac, it is one of the few surviving American Revolutionary War forts and one of the most complete early forts in the country. In 2015, Fort Mackinac celebrated 235 years standing guard over Mackinac Island.</p><br>
<p>During the main tourism summer months (June through August), visitors ascend into a bustle of activity within the old British-built stone walls of old Fort Mackinac after entering its weathered gates. Costumed interpreters greet visitors, portray life in the 1880s, answer questions, pose for pictures, and lead tours throughout the day. Some of the "soldiers" carry original 45-70 Springfield Model 1873, the type used at the fort during the 1880s. Others play music or greet and mingle with the crowds of visitors.</p><br>
<p>The 1841 model six-pounder is fired many times daily. It is the second-largest cannon regularly demonstrated on the Great Lakes. Activities also include rifle firings, court martial re-enactments, and dances of the type done during the early days of Fort Mackinac with live musicians.</p><br>
<h3>Extant buildings</h3><br>
<p>There are 14 original buildings as part of the fort museum:</p><br>
<p>Fort Holmes is a fortified earthen redoubt located on the highest point of Mackinac Island. Originally built in 1814 by British forces during the War of 1812, the redoubt was improved by that army throughout the course of the war  to help defend the adjacent Fort Mackinac from a possible attack by the U.S. Army.</p><br>
<p>The British named the redoubt Fort George and reinforced it with cannon, a blockhouse, and a magazine for gunpowder and other munitions. However, Fort Holmes never functioned as an independent military fortification. It was always a dependent outpost of nearby Fort Mackinac.</p><br>
<p>When United States armed forces reoccupied Mackinac Island in 1815 under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, they took possession of Fort George. They surveyed and measured their prize, which they renamed Fort Holmes in honor of Major Andrew Holmes, a casualty in the 1814 Battle of Mackinac Island. However, the American army soon abandoned Fort Holmes. The earthworks and buildings of the former redoubt slowly eroded and disappeared over the course of more than a century.</p><br>
<p>In 1936, as part of its mission to provide employment through public works projects during the nationwide Great Depression, the Works Progress Administration used the original 1817 American survey to rebuild Fort Holmes to its War of 1812 appearance. , however, most of the reconstructed buildings of Fort Holmes had again disappeared, except for the redoubt&#39;s earthen walls.</p><br>
<p>In 2015 the Mackinac Island State Park completed a second reconstruction of Fort Holmes that resumes the appearance that the redoubt had in 1817. The blockhouse includes interpretive panels inside, and is open in the summer. Many visitors come to the fort site for a view of the Straits of Mackinac, much of which is visible from this lookout point approximately 320 ft above the surface of Lake Huron and 890 feet (271 m) above sea level. The redoubt and blockhouse can be rented for special occasions.</p><br>
<p>Fort Michilimackinac was an 18th-century French, and later British, fort and trading post at the Straits of Mackinac; it was built on the northern tip of the lower peninsula of the present-day state of Michigan in the United States. Built around 1715, and abandoned in 1783, it was located along the straits that connect Lake Huron and Lake Michigan of the Great Lakes of North America. A reconstruction of the fort is preserved as the main feature of Colonial Michilimackinac Historic State Park.</p><br>
<p>The present-day village of Mackinaw City developed around the site of the fort, which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark. It is preserved as an open-air historical museum, with several reconstructed wooden buildings and palisade, and is now part of the state park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The primary purpose of the fort was as part of the French-Canadian trading post system, which stretched from the Atlantic Coast and the St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakes, and south to the Mississippi River through the Illinois Country. The fort served as a supply depot for traders in the western Great Lakes.</p><br>
<p>The French had first established a presence in the Straits of Mackinac in 1671 when Father Marquette established the Jesuit St. Ignace Mission at present-day St. Ignace in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In 1683, they augmented the mission with Fort de Buade. In 1701, Sieur de Cadillac moved the French garrison to Fort Detroit and closed the mission.</p><br>
<p>By 1713, however, the French decided to re-establish a presence along the Straits of Mackinac, and built the wooden Fort Michilimackinac on the northern tip of the lower peninsula. They sent Constant le Marchand de Lignery with a contingent of soldiers and workmen in 1715 to accomplish the job. Over the decades, they made several modifications and expansions to the palisade walls. Chevalier Jacques Testard de Montigny, who was a Lt. and a Knight of the Order of St. Louis, was appointed in 1730 and served for three years as commandant of the fort. He was previously commandant of Fort La Baye (Green Bay, Wisconsin). Many of his relatives settled in Michigan.</p><br>
<p>The French relinquished the fort, along with their territory in Canada, to the British in 1761 following their defeat in the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years&#39; War. The British continued to operate the fort as a major trading post, but most residents were French and Métis (Ojibwe-French), who spoke predominantly French and worshipped at Sainte Anne Church in a small log structure. Other civilian residents included British fur traders, some of whom resided within the fort in the southeastern row house.</p><br>
<p>The Ojibwe in the region soon became dissatisfied with British policies, particularly their cancellation of the annual policy of distributing gifts to the Indians. On June 2, 1763, as part of the larger conflict known as Pontiacs War, a group of Ojibwe staged a game of baagaadowe (a forerunner of modern lacrosse) outside the fort as a ruse to gain entrance. After entering the fort, they killed most of the British inhabitants. They held the fort for a year before the British regained control, promising to offer more and better gifts to the native inhabitants of the area.</p><br>
<p>The British eventually determined that the wooden fort on the mainland was too vulnerable. In 1781 they built a limestone fort on nearby Mackinac Island. Now known as Fort Mackinac, it was initially named Fort Michilimackinac. The British then moved related buildings to the island by dismantling them and moving them across the water in the summer and over ice in winter to the island during the next two years. Ste. Anne&#39;s Church was also moved. Patrick Sinclair, the lieutenant governor of Michilimackinac, ordered the remains of the original Fort Michilimackinac to be burned after the move.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In 1960 the fort grounds were designated a National Historic Landmark. The grounds were then restored, largely through archaeologically informed reconstruction, as a tourist attraction. The fort and grounds operate, as of 2024, as part of Colonial Michilimackinac Historic State Park in Mackinaw City, a major component of the Mackinac State Historic Parks. Interpreters, both paid and volunteer, help bring the history to life with music, live demonstrations and reenactments, including musket and cannon firing demonstrations. The site has numerous reconstructed historical wooden structures based on archeological excavations. This is considered one of the most extensively excavated early colonial French archaeological sites in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The state park grounds feature the foot of the Mackinac Bridge, the Old Mackinac Point Lighthouse, dating from 1892, a day-use park with a view of the Mackinac Bridge and Mackinac Island, and a visitor center with gift shop.</p><br>
<p>Fort Verde State Historic Park in the town of Camp Verde, Arizona is a small park that attempts to preserve parts of the Apache Wars-era fort as it appeared in the 1880s. The park was established in 1970 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places a year later.</p><br>
<p>Fort Verde was established at its current location in 1871. It is significant as "the best preserved and least altered of any military post associated with General Crook’s 1872-73 campaign against the northern Apaches."</p><br>
<p>Settlers in the mid-19th century near the Verde River grew corn and other crops with the prospect of getting good prices from nearby Prescott, which was the territorial capital, and from nearby miners. The rapid increase in population for the mining economy disrupted the hunting and gathering environments of the local Native American tribes, the Dilzhee Apache and Yavapai. In turn, they raided the farmers crops for food.</p><br>
<p>The farmers requested military protection from the United States Army and, in 1865, although Arizona was still only a territory, the infantry arrived. They set up several posts over the next few years:</p><br>
<p>1865, a small camp five miles (8 km) south of what is today Camp Verde.</p><br>
<p>1866–1871, Camp Lincoln, a mile north of today&#39;s Fort Verde.</p><br>
<p>1871–1873, Camp Verde, built gradually from 1871 to 1873.</p><br>
<p>1879, Camp Verde, renamed Fort Verde</p><br>
<p>1891, Fort Verde abandoned</p><br>
<p>1899, sold at public auction</p><br>
<p>After approximately 1,500 local natives were placed on a reservation by 1872, the army&#39;s role changed from protecting the settlers to ensuring that the Indians stayed on the reservation. The last major military engagement with uprising natives took place in 1882 at the Battle of Big Dry Wash.</p><br>
<p>The fort was never enclosed by walls or stockades, and it never saw fighting on site. At its height, it consisted of twenty-two buildings, only four of which survived until 1956, when local citizens created a small museum in the administration building. They later donated the buildings and ten acres (40,000 m) as a State Park.</p><br>
<p>Some of the buildings were built with pice, which is large adobe slabs cast within wooden frames, rather than assembled from the more familiar individual adobe bricks.</p><br>
<h2>Historic structures in Fort Verde State Historic Park</h2><br>
<p>The following structures and markers are pictured:</p><br>
<p>The "0" Mile General Crook Trail Marker which is located in the place where in 1871 General George Crook established a military supply trail which connected Forts Whipple, Verde and Apache. The marker is located close to the Fort Verde Administration Building.</p><br>
<p>The main Administration Building. It contained the main offices from which the decisions as to the operations of the fort were made. It now houses the Visitor Center of the Fort Verde Museum and contains exhibits, period artifacts from military life, and history on the Indian Scouts and Indian Wars era.</p><br>
<p>Inside the Commanding officers office in the Administration Building of Fort Verde.</p><br>
<p>Display of uniforms once used by the men who served in Fort Verde. The display is in the old Administration Building.</p><br>
<p>The Commanding Officer Quarters.</p><br>
<p>The Bachelor Officers’ Quarters.</p><br>
<p>The Doctor&#39;s & Surgeons Quarters.</p><br>
<p>The Bay View Association of the United Methodist Church, known as Bay View, is an example of two uniquely American community forms: the Methodist camp meeting and the independent Chautauqua. Designed for the first purpose in 1876 as the county&#39;s only romantically-planned campground, and adapted for the second from 1885 to 1915, Bay View has remained in continuous operation since its foundation.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Bay View is incorporated as a domestic nonprofit organization under Act 39 of the Public Acts of 1899, being MCL 455.51. Act 39 of the Public Acts of 1899 establishes Bay View as a body politic and corporate. The association was originally formed as part of the Methodist Camp Meeting movement and adopted a Chautauqua program in 1886.</p><br>
<p>The associations grounds contain approximately 440 cottages and 30 community-owned buildings. There are two hotels on premises: Staffords Bay View Inn (1886), and The Terrace Inn and 1911 Restaurant. Other facilities include a post office, beach with a swim area, children&#39;s pool and a sail house. The community is located on about 340 acres, dropping in a series of terraces from a 200 ft to the shore of Little Traverse Bay. Residents lease the land under the cottages from the Association, which charges annual Chautauqua fees and taxes.</p><br>
<p>Bay View is located in the USA state of Michigan. It is located in Bear Creek Township, Emmet County on Little Traverse Bay and abuts the east side of the city of Petoskey along USA Highway 31. The ZIP code is 49770 and the FIPS place code is 06260. The association is bounded by Little Traverse Bay on the north, Division Road on the east, Petoskey city limits on the west, and on the south by the south line of Township 35 North. The Bay View census-designated place (CDP) includes the association grounds and additional areas east of Division Road. As of the 2010 census the population of the CDP was 133, due to the inclusion of an area outside of the association grounds in the CDP.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Nearly all the structures in the community were built in the 1875–1900 time period. Most buildings are Eastlake and Stick style, with some Queen Anne and Shingle style architecture. Cottages are set on 50 ft along gently curving streets running along the natural terraces. In the center of the community is The Campus (originally Tabernacle Park). Many of the larger communal structures are located here, including the original 1877 preaching stand, as well an 1880 book store and multiple educational buildings constructed around 1890. In 1879, an artesian well water system was installed, providing spring water. However, the pipes were laid very shallowly, and had to be drained in the winter months to prevent freezing. Now, the community is closed from November through April, during which time the residences on the association grounds must be vacated. John M. Hall Auditorium, replaced the 1881 Chapel and the 1887 New Tabernacle/Old Auditorium.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Bay View was founded in 1875 by Michigan Methodists as a camp meeting "for scientific and intellectual culture, and for the promotion of religion and morality." Bay Views origins can be traced to the camp meeting movement which saw the development of similar resorts such as Wesleyan Grove on Marthas Vineyard, Ocean Grove, New Jersey, or Lakeside, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>The group considered multiple locations, and eventually struck a deal with the citizens of Petoskey and the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, where the Petoskey citizenry would pay to extend the railroad line from their town to Bay View, the railroad would purchase the site, and the Methodists would agree to improve the location and hold camp meetings there for fifteen years. In 1876, the first group of Methodists travelled to the site, cleared an area of underbrush, and built a preaching stand and an audience area under the trees. Dr. Seth Reed chose the name of Bay View. He was secretary of the Bay View Association for 14 years. Dr. Reed platted the grounds and named the streets, some of which were named after early settlers. On August 2, 1876, the first meeting was held at the site. Dr. Pilcher suggested the name Bay View, and selected the site of the Speakers Stand. He wrote articles of incorporation, stating the assembly was "organized for intellectual and scientific culture, and for the promotion of the cause of religion and morality." Shelter at the time was only in tents. Construction of cottages began almost immediately, and by 1881 there were about 150 at the site. By this time, the original religious-oriented camp meeting program had languished and the association hired John M. Hall to organize Bay Views interdenominational Assembly program: a "Christian Institution of the broadest catholicity." Departments included Bible, Missionary, Social, Health, Industrial, Country Life: American and International.</p><br>
<p>Under the leadership of John M. Hall, Bay View adopted a Chautauqua program which included a series of educational lectures, classes, entertainment, political speeches, and music, began in 1886, and the community developed around these activities. These programs, along with programs for children and a variety of classes, took place in July and August of each year. The program was immensely successful, as a result, number of cottages in the community soared, with 200 in 1887, 400 in 1895, and 500 in 1901. Many of these newcomers were from other, non-Methodist denominations, and many stayed all summer rather than for only a few weeks of the year. Hall writes of the transformation of Bay View from its camp meeting roots to a Chautauqua: "founded by Methodists, it is now by its organic law interdenominational in management and life. People of every denomination are there in large numbers and so beautiful is the hospitality of ideas that another&#39;s specific church affiliations never occurs to one." In 1887, the Bay View Summer University opened. The University was associated with Albion College in 1919 until 1969.</p><br>
<p>The Bay View Association was listed as a National Historic Landmark district in 1987 as "one of the finest remaining examples of two uniquely American community forms, the Methodist Camp Meeting and the independent Chautauqua."</p><br>
<h2>The Four Pillars of Chautauqua</h2><br>
<p>Bay View&#39;s continues to the Chautauqua program established by John M. Hall to this day. The four pillars are arts, education, recreation, and religion.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Sundays find members and visitors participating in Communion, Sunday School and Assembly Worship. Vespers are now concerts beginning and ending with a hymn and closing benediction. Carillon bells call us to Worship and eventide. Youth groups, Bible studies and prayer meetings are offered throughout the summer. Daily Religion and Life lectures offer further study from Sunday&#39;s preacher.</p><br>
<p>History - Founders desired a setting for spiritual refreshment and renewal of soul, mind and body. "We came to worship God, to establish a center of Christian influence...a place where Christian people could meet, enjoy fellowship...where God shall be honored..." "Tabernacle Park", in the center of the grounds was "Gods first temple", the camp meeting place. "Rev. Dr. E.H. Pilcher, president, preached the opening sermon in 1876..., dedicating the grounds to the worship of Almighty God." Soon thousands came by rail and boat for all-day Big Sundays filled with worship, singing, and learning. Local Odawa and Ojibwa attended camp meeting services, where "Chief Petoskeys granddaughter accompanied the singing on the pump organ." By 1885 Ministerial Unions, Preachers Conferences for lay preachers and teachers were added. Bay Views 25th anniversary pamphlet highlights that "Though a Methodist Institution, Bay View is not a church or denominational establishment, but a Christian Institution of the broadest catholicity, welcoming to full membership all men and women of any or no denomination who have a desire to be part of such a community as this."</p><br>
<p>The first Sunday School Congress, 1877, featured famous preachers and teachers including Rev. Jesse Lyman Hurlbut and Frank Beard, initiator of Chalk Talks. Inspirational lessons were taken from the "Course of Sabbath School Normal Lessons," developed at the Chautauqua Sunday School Conference. Horace Hitchcock took over the popular Bay View Sunday school in 1886. Donations from state Sunday Schools provided funds for building of Hitchcock Hall, dedicated in 1889. John H. Vincent sent Chautauqua congratulations.</p><br>
<h3>Music Festival</h3><br>
<p>The Bay View Music Festival is one of the longest running collegiate chamber music festivals in North America. It was begun in 1886 with the choir from Court Street Methodist Church from Flint, Michigan. The program grew rapidly led by respected musicians from conservatories in Detroit, Ann Arbor, and Chicago. The music program has been associated and accredited through Oberlin College, Cornell College, DePaul University, Albion College Alma College, and the University of Michigan. Most noted among the directors in the festival&#39;s 132-year history is William Reddick and. Concertmaster Max Bendix of the Theodore Thomas Orchestra in Chicago was the first of many violinists including Robert Mann, Mikhail Press, Leon Marx, concertmaster of the Chicago Opera Orchestra and Austrian violinist Hugo Gottesmann.</p><br>
<p>Madame Schumann Heink, Gladys Swarthout, John Charles Thomas, Richard Crooks, James Melton, Jennie Tourel, Martha Lipton, Thomas L. Thomas, Walter Taussig, Etta Moten, Mildred Dilling, Ossip and Clara Gabrilovisch, Jerome Hines, Sherrill Milnes, Diane Bish, George Shirley, Boston Brass, Ara Berberian, Martina Arroyo, and Virginia Zeani, are a few of the musicians to teach and perform at Bay View. The Fisk Jubilee Singers made four appearances as did other jubilee groups. The Williams&#39; Jubilee Singers were the featured group to open the John M. Hall Auditorium in 1914.</p><br>
<p>The festival has followed the national trends over the decades in featuring large choral works, classical music, devotional repertoire, chamber music, and recently has included a wide variety of popular groups to appeal the variety of musical tastes.</p><br>
<p>Theatrical production date back to the 1890s with road shows such as the Ben Greet Players and sporadic local productions. It became a regular feature of the Performing Arts Department when New York tenor Director Willard Pierce joined the music staff. Plays, musicals, children&#39;s productions, and opera productions are all featured on the annual schedule.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Bay View Music Festival offers approximately 180 students scholarships for coaching and teaching chamber music, vocal performance, collaborative piano, opera, musical theater taught by over 40 faculty members. An annual hand bell concert features directors and professionals from all over the US. A special opera seminar is offered in June. The 10-week program includes a mix of nearly 80 theatrical productions, recitals, chamber music concerts, choral performances, brass, woodwind and string instrument concerts and appearances by classical artists and famous jazz and popular individuals and groups.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>The Bay View Recreation program offers recreational activities for people of all ages and has always been a primary element of the Bay View Association. It is one of the pillars of its Chautauqua foundation. The program revolves around the Day Camp (Boys & Girls Club) that offers a safe, stimulating environment in which children participate in healthy and creative activities. From mid-June to August, children participate in age-appropriate morning activities at Tot Lot (ages 3–4), Fawns (5-6), and Boys And Girls Club (7-14). These activities include games, athletics, arts & crafts, songs, scavenger hunts, and educational programming. The camp is located at Swift Field, centrally located in the community. Every Friday, an all-camp event is held for a large group activity such as the carnival, capture the flag, and the Ernie Gray Olympics. In the afternoon, activities move to the waterfront where children can participate in swimming, tennis, and sailing, including lessons in each activity. Weekend activities include tennis tournaments and sailing races. On Monday nights, the recreation program hosts a community hotdog roast. The motto of the Boys and Girls Club is "Fun and recreation for all."</p><br>
<p>The recreational facilities include Swift Field, the Tot Lot building, the Fawn House, the Boys & Girls Club clubhouse, the craft house, 3 playgrounds, 9 tennis courts, 4 pickleball courts, the boathouse (with sunfish, lasers, kayaks, paddle boards, and other boats available for use by the community), a beach, a children&#39;s pool, a teen center, a fitness trail, lawn bowling, shuffleboard, and croquet courts. There are also 167 acres of pristine woods with trails along with multiple parks and open spaces around the community grounds.</p><br>
<p>In 2020, Bay View enhanced its waterfront with a 125-foot extension to its pier. This was a multimillion dollar project aimed at increasing safety for the swimming and boating areas and to protect against erosion.</p><br>
<p>History -</p><br>
<p>The site of Bay View was chosen in part for its recreational opportunities. In 1875, the Conference Committee tasked with locating a proposed site for what would become Bay View foresaw "the great summer resort of the northwest…for scores of miles in almost every direction offers facilities for recreation which are simply endless." At the 2nd Annual Meeting, the trustees were asked to amend the By Laws to add the Committee on Recreations to its list of standing Committees. By 1901, the Boys and Girls Club was established.</p><br>
<p>In 1910, additional development expanded the waterfront program with the construction of Recreation Hall on the shoreline. The building contained a swimming pool and a 4-lane bowling alley. Long since removed, the building now houses the "Rec Club" teen center and the boathouse. In the early 1920s, what would become Swift Field was developed. Since its dedication in 1924, it has been the central location for land-based recreational activities for youth, including baseball, archery, tetherball, badminton, and ping-pong. In 1955, the Boys and Girls Clubhouse was erected at Swift Field. The Boys & Girls Club evolved during this time and came to its modern form under the direction of Ernie Gray. Activities were organized for children, ages 3–14. Swimming lessons, sailing, and tennis were also incorporated into the afternoon programming.</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>Education has been an important part of the Chautauqua movement, beginning with the New York Chautauqua Institution then spreading to Bay View Association and other Midwest Chautauquas.</p><br>
<p>Bay View offered more than sixty classes in 2017 including art, literature, history, reading circles, and culinary classes. Education classes have been offered in Bay View for over a century. In 1888, a comprehensive set of Education courses was offered. This School of Liberal Arts attracted college professors to teach the courses. A School of Elocution was part of the curriculum in that year.</p><br>
<p>Guest Lecturers have been enhancing the summer experience for over one hundred years. In 1895, Jane Addams, leader of the settlement house movement, spoke on The Inception, Establishment, & Accomplishments of Chicagos Hull House. She returned in 1903 to speak on her controversial stand on saloons and dancing. Helen Keller came to speak in 1913 on The Heart & the Hand; or the Right use of our senses. Each year American Experience lecturers visit and speak on campus, as well as Faith lecturers as part of the Religion Program. Recent Lecturers include David Kennedy in 2016. Professor Kennedy, a Pulitzer Prize winner, presented a series of lectures on WWII and the World It Made&#39;. Reverend Dr. Barbara Essex gave a series of 5 lectures in 2012. Dr. Akhil Reed Amar, Professor of Constitutional Law at Yale University lectured in 2012 and will be the 2018 American Experience speaker.</p><br>
<p>Each year, Bay View initiates a Big Read where a book is selected for all the surrounding communities to read. The author visits in July and holds a discussion on Bay Views campus. In 2017 the Big Read&#39; was "Terror in the City of Champions – Murder, Baseball, and the Secret Society that Shocked Depression-era Detroit" by Tom Stanton.</p><br>
<p>BayViewPetoskyMI.jpgBay View in 1986</p><br>
<p>2009-0619-BayView-pan.JPGView of Association Grounds</p><br>
<p>2009-0619-BayView-Womens.JPGWoman&#39;s Council building</p><br>
<p>Bay View Michigan Post Office.jpgPost office</p><br>
<p>Bay View Michigan Sign US31.jpgBay View sign on US31</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>On August 7, 2018 the Bay View Association removed the requirement that members be of "Christian persuasion." Nearly 70 percent of Bay View members voted in favor of the amendment, which immediately went into effect. Membership in the Bay View Association is required to own a cottage in the community. That vote left in place a bylaw which required that five of the nine members of the resort&#39;s ruling board must be Methodist. A subsequent lawsuit resulted in a consent decree, approved by the board on July 9, 2019, which removed that requirement.</p><br>
<p>The Bay View Association has had other membership requirements. When the association was founded in 1875 there were no explicit requirements, but in 1942 the Bay View Board adopted the following resolution: "No person shall be accepted as a member of this association or be allowed to rent or lease property or a room, for longer than a period of one day, unless such person is of the white race and a Christian who must provide acceptable and good recommendations. This resolution does not apply to servants within a household or to employes".</p><br>
<p>In 1947 the by-laws were revised to add "Any person twenty-one years of age and good moral character, by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Trustees, may be accepted as a member of this Association provided that he or she is of the Caucasian race and of Christian persuasion." The two provisions Caucasian requirements were removed in 1959.</p><br>
<p>From the 1960s through to the 1980s there was a quota on how many Catholics were allowed to be members. Membership of Catholics was not to exceed 10% of the total membership. Once the quota was met additional Catholics applicants were rejected. This quota requirement was abandoned in the 1980s.</p><br>
<p>On August 6, 2011, the Bay View Association members voted on a proposal that would remove the Christian affiliation requirement. The proposal was defeated by a vote of 52% (381 members) opposed to 48% (346 members) in favor of the proposal. The proposal needed a two thirds majority to pass.</p><br>
<p>On August 3, 2013, another vote was taken to change the membership qualification requirements to include non-Christians. The proposal was again defeated by a vote of 51.85% (364 members) for the change to 48.14% (338 members) opposed to the change. A two-thirds majority is required to pass the amendment.</p><br>
<p>The Board, led by President Jon Chism, held the belief that Bay View should defend the membership requirements, resulting in a increase in the Association&#39;s directors and officers insurance.</p><br>
<p>In July 2017, The Bay View Chautauqua Inclusiveness Group filed a civil rights and religious discrimination lawsuit against the Bay View Association in the U. S. District Court for the Western District of Michigan.</p><br>
<p>In May 2019, mediation resulted in an agreement to resolve the controversy. The agreement was implemented on July 18, 2019 by a Consent Order from the USA District Court for the Western District of Michigan. There is no longer any religious requirement for membership in the Association or to buy a cottage.</p><br>
<p>The Consent Order which ended the membership controversy did not restrict the religious program of the Association. As a Chautauqua, the Bay View Association conducts programming in the areas of religion, education, recreation, and the performing arts. The Association employs a Director of Worship and Religious Activities, conducts Sunday worship services, and presents lectures on religious subjects daily during the summer Assembly Season. All elements of all the programs are open to the general public.</p><br>
<p>The Associations Mission Statement is also not affected by the Courts Order. The mission of the Bay View Association is to be an institution in which Christian values and traditions are central; To enrich the human experience for individuals and families within Bay View and the surrounding community through a seasonal program of religious, educational, cultural and recreational opportunities; And to provide a Christian perspective in a changing world.</p><br>
<p>In July 2020, Bay View faced backlash from their community for perceived racist activity. Members in support of the Black Lives Matter movement wrote the names of Black victims of police brutality on sidewalks in Bay View as part of the "say their names" campaign. The President of the Board of Trustees ordered the grounds crew to wash away the chalk, and sent an email to members threatening to fine those who chalked the sidewalk. This sparked divisive discourse within the association. Members asked the Board of Trustees to release a statement condemning racism, which the Board ultimately voted against in a 7 - 2 vote.</p><br>
<p>Branciforte, originally named Villa de Branciforte, was the last of only three secular pueblos founded by the Spanish colonial government of Alta California. The pueblo was established in 1797 on the eastern bluff of the San Lorenzo River, facing Mission Santa Cruz on the west side of the river, in modern-day Santa Cruz, California. The pueblo never prospered, and the area was annexed into the city of Santa Cruz, California in 1905.</p><br>
<p>The present day Branciforte Small Schools Campus (BSSC) building is located at what was the center of the Villa de Branciforte. A California State historical marker, number 469, is located outside of the building, too, at the corner of Water Street and Branciforte Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Villa de Branciforte was founded under the direction of California Governor Diego de Borica in memory of a Viceroy of New Spain, Miguel de la Grúa Talamanca, 1st Marquis of Branciforte, and was founded as part of Spain&#39;s strategy to protect upper California against other European countries such as Russia, England, and France. Its original civilian population was not bound to the church or the military. Unlike the Spanish missions, the villa was secular.</p><br>
<p>In 1781, Governor Felipe de Neve had issued rules regarding governance of secular pueblos (only two at that time; San José and Los Ángeles), the "Regulations for the Government of the Province of the Californias" (Reglamento para el gobierno de la provincia de Californias). Those rules included locally elected officials (subject to approval by the governor): the alcalde (combined mayor and judge), the ayuntamiento (town council), the juez de paz (justice of the peace), and others.</p><br>
<p>From its very inception in 1797 the Villa met with great obstacles. The funds were not adequate, and the enterprise failed to attract any retired soldiers. In their stead, a motley group of convicts who were banished from New Spain formed the initial group of colonists, and although the missionaries at Mission Santa Cruz protested bitterly against this pueblo being situated so close to their domain, the town received official backing.</p><br>
<p>The first eight settlers came from Guadalajara, Jalisco, New Spain (Spanish colonial Mexico). They found nothing of what they had been promised. Expecting to find the town already built to accommodate them, they found they had to build their own rough dwellings with little tools or provisions. In the end the Villa de Branciforte never resembled the neatly laid out plans for streets and buildings its planners envisioned. Furthermore, it never lived up to its expectations, and in 1802, the town itself lost the support of the Crown, and supplies ceased to arrive.</p><br>
<p>In 1803, about five years after the villa was established the settlers attempted to establish a government by electing an alcalde or municipal magistrate. This election was one of the first elections ever held in Alta California. After this, the citizens of the Villa de Branciforte began to spread over the country.</p><br>
<p>Ever since the first days, many of its residents, whom the narratives and chronicles denounce as "lazy" and prone to vices and crime, decided to move to other, more prosperous settlements like the Pueblo of San José. There were also constant problems with the missionaries at the adjacent Mission Santa Cruz over grazing rights, and the corrupting influence of the settlers on the neophytes at the Mission. For the first few years the population actually declined.</p><br>
<p>In 1818, when the pirate Hippolyte de Bouchard threatened to attack the California coast in support of the independence struggles raging in the Americas, the residents of Branciforte were reluctantly called upon to defend the Mission against sacking while the padres and neophytes took flight to other Missions further inland. When Bouchard arrived, he did not sack Santa Cruz but instead it was the residents of Branciforte who looted and stole from the mission even the clothes from the saints adorning the church. The missionaries and neophytes came back to find the whole place ransacked, but it was soon discovered who the culprits had really been. This event deepened the mistrust both the communities held for each other.</p><br>
<p>By 1831 however, Branciforte had a population of about two hundred people which was mostly made up of merchants, explorers, and retired soldiers.</p><br>
<p>The Branciforte Adobe is the only remaining building of Branciforte itself. There are three other period adobes in Santa Cruz County.</p><br>
<p>German Village is a historic neighborhood in Columbus, Ohio, just south of the citys downtown. It was settled in the early-to-mid-19th century by a large number of German immigrants, who at one time comprised as much as a third of the citys entire population. It became a city historic district in 1960 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, becoming the lists largest privately funded preservation district, and in 2007, was made a Preserve America Community by the federal government. In 1980, its boundaries increased, and today it is one of the worlds premier historic restorations.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early</h3><br>
<p>In 1796, Congress appropriated the Refugee Lands for Canadian province individuals who had supported the Colonial cause in the American Revolution. By 1802, an American Revolution veteran named John McGowan claimed 328 acre, most of what would become the German Village. As German immigrants arrived, McGowan sold tracts of land to them. By 1814, a settlement had grown up, originally called "Das Alte Südende" (the Old South End), and German immigrants contributed to building the first statehouse.</p><br>
<h4>Immigration</h4><br>
<p>By 1830, massive German immigration to the city had occurred. The most influential German newspaper in 1843 was Der Westbote. Many immigrants from Germany would serve in the American Civil War, thus gaining the universal respect of the local citizens. By 1865, one-third of Columbuss population was German and the community was flourishing. They built up the local neighborhood, including many businesses, such as Hessenauer Jewelers and Lazarus Department Stores, schools, and churches, such as the Ohio-historic St. Marys Catholic Church, built in 1865 and adorned with a 197 ft steeple in 1893. German-American George J. Karb became mayor of the city, twice, at the end of the 19th century and again in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>During the early 20th century, the south end saw newcomers from eastern Europe aside from German immigrants, resulting in brother neighborhoods such as the Hungarian Village.</p><br>
<p>The local schools the German immigrants constructed and managed were so superior that English-speaking residents of Columbus chose to attend them, such as one that once stood at Fulton Street east of S. Fourth Street.</p><br>
<h4>World War I</h4><br>
<p>The area was in serious decline throughout the first half of the 20th century, partly due to anti-German sentiment during World War I. During that time, the teaching of German in public schools was banned and German textbooks were burned. German street names were changed, such as Germania Street becoming the present-day Stewart Avenue, and Schiller Park was temporarily renamed Washington Park. The anti-German sentiment fueled by the media was so bad that in 1918, German books were burned on Broad Street and at the foot of the Schiller statue. German canine breeds were taken from their owners and slaughtered before being thrown into a pit in Schiller Park, including Dachshunds. Despite the hatred, the Columbus German American community would produce one of America&#39;s finest heroes from the war, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, for whom Rickenbacker International Airport in southern Columbus is named.</p><br>
<h4>Declared slum</h4><br>
<p>Further decline occurred later due to the closing of the local breweries during Prohibition. After the war, the south end was zoned for manufacturing, leading to the erosion of the area&#39;s residential feel. In World War II, the streetcar tracks and wrought-iron fences were confiscated for the war effort. By the 1950s, the area had become a slum and the city decided to demolish one-third of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Renewal</h3><br>
<h4>Frank Fetch</h4><br>
<p>With the Village nearing complete destruction, Frank Fetch defied the common wisdom and purchased a house on S. Wall Street, determined to rebuild the neighborhood. Fetch would create the German Village Society. In June 1960, the society hosted the first Haus und Garten Tour, which attracted visitors and the local media to eight restored homes and two gardens. Today, the tour is one of the city&#39;s most popular events. Frank Fetch Park was named after him.</p><br>
<h4>Historic preservation</h4><br>
<p>Concerned citizens managed to save its historic architecture from demolition in the 1960s by lobbying for a local commission, the German Village Commission, to have power over external changes made to buildings and by getting the area listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>The area is mostly a residential neighborhood of sturdy, red-brick homes with wrought iron fences along tree-lined, brick-paved streets.</p><br>
<p>The German Village Guest House has been recognized as one of the best in the Midwest by the New York Post, The Plain Dealer, and the St. Louis Post Dispatch, and positively reviewed by The Washington Post and The Tennessean. It was rated as the "Best Columbus Hotel 2010" by City Search.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, German Village was recognized by the White House as a Preserve America Community.</p><br>
<h4>Oktoberfest</h4><br>
<p>German tradition has long reigned in the community in the form of an annual Oktoberfest festival. It originally took place in Schiller Park and has been held at various locations within the German Village neighborhood. Due to new development in the area, it now takes place at the Ohio State Fairgrounds / Ohio Expo Center. The festival was voted to be canceled in 2009, but the Schmidt (owners and operators of Schmidt&#39;s Sausage Haus) and Cox families stepped in to keep it running.</p><br>
<p>A smaller Oktoberfest still goes on in the German Village itself, at the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (Singing and Sports Club) at 543 South Front Street in the old Schlee Brewmaster&#39;s House and outdoor garden.</p><br>
<h4>LGBTQ community</h4><br>
<p>Although German Village is an eclectic community, the area is known as a residential gay village. While there are no gay establishments within German Village, the neighboring Brewery District and Merion Village have several.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Boundaries</h3><br>
<p>German Village is bound by Pearl Street on the west; East Livingston Avenue on the north; Lathrop Street, Brust Street, Grant Avenue, Jaeger Street, and Blackberry Alley on the east; and Nursery Lane on the south.</p><br>
<h3>Parks and landmarks</h3><br>
<p>Schiller Park, named after Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805), was once a community meeting ground for German immigrants. It is now the site of recreational facilities, gardens, and an amphitheater that hosts free live performances of Shakespearean plays during the summer months courtesy of Actors Theatre of Columbus. It is bounded by Jaeger Street and City Park, Reinhard, and Deshler Avenues. It has been the areas center for festivals and neighborhood activities since the 1800s.</p><br>
<p>The 23-acre park&#39;s main entrance, along City Park Avenue, greets visitors with the Huntington Gardens, sponsored by Huntington National Bank and maintained by volunteers, and the Schiller statue. The statue was presented to the park by local residents in 1891. It is a second casting of the statue in Munich, Germany, designed and executed by Max von Widnmann and unveiled on May 9, 1863. The Columbus statue was transported free of charge across the Atlantic. The park is also home to Umbrella Girl, dedicated to the citizens of German Village in October 1996 to replace the missing original sculpture.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood&#39;s Stewart Alternative Elementary School, was built in 1874. It is one of the oldest remaining school buildings in Columbus, built at the same time as the First and Second Avenue Schools, also still extant.</p><br>
<h3>Residential</h3><br>
<p>The houses of German Village are settled close together on narrow plots. The area was originally settled mostly residential with commercial buildings scattered throughout. To keep this highly residential feel, the German Village Society has the area rezoned from manufacturing and commercial to high-density residential. The houses have small or no front yards, emphasizing local parks and gardens. The average home price in 2021 was $377,450. Several homes in the neighborhood are priced at over $1 million, including a 5,200 ft&sup2; home that sold in August 2007 for $1.5 million. Another home, which was purchased for $1.4 million in 2006, boasts an underground tunnel linking the main house with the garage, which also serves as an art and wine cellar.</p><br>
<h2>Commerce</h2><br>
<h3>Restaurants and bars</h3><br>
<p>German Village has a commercial strip mainly centered along S. Third Street, with mostly locally owned restaurants such as Katzingers Delicatessen, Schmidts Sausage Haus, and Schmidts Fudge Haus. The Schmidts establishments have been a part of German Village for 120 years, opened by George F. Schmidt. The restaurant is still run by the family, and was featured on Man vs. Food in 2008. Thurman Café—home to the "Thurmanator" eating challenge—was opened in German Village in 1942 by Nick Suclescy. The café and its Thurmanator challenge was featured on Man vs. Food in 2008. Katzinger&#39;s Delicatessen is another family owned restaurant that opened in 1984 and is known for their deli sandwiches.</p><br>
<p>German Village was the home of the first restaurant in the Max & Erma&#39;s chain. In 1972, the restaurant was opened by Barry Zacks. The name was adopted from the original tavern, started in 1958 by Max and Erma Visocnik, which the new owners converted into the popular theme restaurant. The location closed in 2017 due to financial difficulties.</p><br>
<p>Many of the neighborhood&#39;s restaurants won 2010 ThisWeek Community Papers awards, including Skillet which won "Best New Restaurant", and Thurman Café for "Best Burgers".</p><br>
<h3>Retail</h3><br>
<p>The neighborhood is home to one of the world&#39;s largest producers of stained glass, the Franklin Art Glass Studios Inc., as well as several art galleries including the Archive Gallery, Hawk Galleries, Keny Gallery, and Kight Studio 551. Shops catering to European-imported retail include Caterina Ltd.</p><br>
<p>German Village is houses a few unique shops including the 32-room The Book Loft of German Village, a pre-Civil War-era style bookstore; Hausfrau Haven–a wine and gift shop; and several art galleries. There are also some import shops, which once included Caterina&#39;s Ltd., selling European housewares, but is now permanently closed.</p><br>
<h2>Miscellaneous</h2><br>
<h3>America&#39;s Great Places</h3><br>
<p>In 2011, German Village was named as one of America&#39;s Great Places in the Neighborhoods category by the American Planning Association. Their description reads, "Unpretentious, renovated houses and cottages stand shoulder to shoulder. Small, meticulously maintained front yards front tree-lined streets with brick sidewalks and cultivated village planters. Small businesses and storefronts with eye-catching displays and the aroma of culinary delights draw in passing pedestrians. German Village has remained true to its mid-19th century history, architecture, and character despite periods of disinvestment, decline, and near ruin.".</p><br>
<h3>German Brewery District</h3><br>
<p>A prosperous industry for the German immigrants was the brewing industry. Today, the Brewery District, part of the greater German Village neighborhood, still partially resembles its notable past. During the 19th century, the area was found largely along both sides of S. Front Street from Livingston Avenue to Sycamore Street.</p><br>
<p>Notable breweries during this period included the Bavarian Brewery, started in 1849 by George Schlegel, which ultimately became the Shlegel Bavarian Brewery in 1860 when Bavarian Nicholas Schlee immigrated and took over. Schlee also owned the Lyceum Theater and served as vice president of the Central Bank. The industry flourished during the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>One of the last major brewers of the city before Prohibition was August Wagner, who immigrated from Bavaria in the late 19th century and worked as the brewmaster at the City Brewery before becoming president and general manager of the Gambrinus Brewing Company. By 1919, he had purchased all of the stock for the company to become the sole owner, and in 1938 he changed the name to August Wagner Breweries, Inc. A statue of Gambrinus is located at 605 S. Front Street.</p><br>
<p>Twenty-nine breweries have existed in and around the village throughout its history.</p><br>
<h3>Hoster Brewing Company legacy</h3><br>
<p>While English breweries were found originally in the city, as German immigrants moved in, their brewing techniques were universally embraced and became the dominant methods for producing beer. is notably credited for this transformation when he opened the City Brewery in the 1830s. He would go on to serve on the City Council between 1846 and 1854 while establishing the city&#39;s first wollen mill in 1852. In 1864, he established the Louis Hoster & Sons Brewery, which became the Hoster Columbus Associated Breweries in 1904. He would also serve on the Board of Education and was a Unionist Democrat.</p><br>
<p>Later members of Louis Hoster&#39;s brewing dynasty included his son Louis Philip Hoster, president of the Columbus Structural Steel Company, Another son of George was Carl J. Hoster, graduate of Cornell University, and great-great uncle of former USA President George W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>Hoster Street in the German Village stretches six blocks between Lazelle and S. Front Streets.</p><br>
<h3>Capital University</h3><br>
<p>In 1831, the German Evangelical Lutheran Seminary secured 14 acre in the south end, founded by William Schmidt, a graduate of the University of Halle in Germany. The school would go on to become what is known today as Capital University, still under the leadership of the Lutheran Church and now located in nearby Bexley.</p><br>
<h3>The arts and athletics</h3><br>
<p>The German immigrants brought with them a vibrant athletic and artistic heritage, which was reflected in their social establishments. The Columbus Maennerchor, a singing group, was established in 1848, and as early as 1852, won a ribbon for their talent at the North American Sangerfest. In 1866, the group won the silver pokal at a festival held in Louisville. In the late 19th century, another singing group called the Columbus Liederkranz was formed by the Germans, but was forced to cease during World War I because of heavy anti-German pressure. Many of its members joined the Maennerchor, which survived.</p><br>
<p>In the 1860s and 1870s the Maennerchor formed a drama division called the "Dramatischen Sektion." They would produce operas, dramas, and comedies until disbanding in the 1930s. One of their notable performances was their 1927 production of Friedrich von Schiller&#39;s Die Räuber.</p><br>
<p>The Columbus Turn Verein was a social and athletic (tumbling) association that dated back to 1866, and was a main organization from which the German immigrants drew mutual support. In the late 19th century the Turners merged with the Germania Gesang Verein, which hosted a Maennerchor and a Damenchor. Another merger enlarged the Germania in the late 1920s. The Germania merged with the Kickers Soccer Club, which for many years was a very active part of the organization. The club also now includes a Fahrrad Verein (Bicycle Club), which goes on weekend outings to bike trails throughout Central Ohio. The clubs official name is now the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (singing and sports club). The Germania Club itself was located in a residence on Kossuth Street, but outgrew its first facility. In 1927 it purchased the present location at 543 South Front Street from the estate of Nicolaus Schlee, one of the prestigious brewmasters of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The society is now located in the neighborhood known as the Brewery District of Columbus, which is the northernmost section of the German Village. Over the years the Germania Club has made it its mission to retain, promote and disseminate all that is good about German culture. A major component of this mission is the practice and performance of German song. Their choruses participate and support public events throughout Ohio during the year in appreciation for the community&#39;s support. The Germania Club celebrated its 147th anniversary in 2013 with an Oktoberfes.</p><br>
<p>In 1890, the Ohio State Buckeyes football team played their first-ever home game in the south end, at a location just west of present-day Schiller Park between Jaeger, Ebner, and Whittier (then called Schiller) Streets.</p><br>
<p>Cane Ridge was the site of a huge camp meeting in 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival, that drew thousands of people and had a lasting influence as one of the landmark events of the Second Great Awakening, which took place largely in frontier areas of the United States. The event was led by eighteen Presbyterian ministers, but numerous Methodist and Baptist preachers also spoke and assisted. Many of the "spiritual exercises", such as glossolalia and ecstatic attendees, were exhibited that in the 20th century became more associated with the Pentecostal movement.</p><br>
<p>Cane Ridge is located in Bourbon County, Kentucky, near Paris. The ridge was named by the explorer Daniel Boone, who had noticed a form of bamboo growing there. The Cane Ridge building and grounds had many unusual aspects. The 1791 Cane Ridge Meeting House is believed to be the largest single-room log structure in North America. The burial ground contains an unmarked section that is among the largest in the country. A Christian church congregation met on the site for many years after the 1801 revival meeting, and the congregation&#39;s leaving the Presbyterian Church in 1804. Barton W. Stone was its minister and one of the leading ministers of the Christian Church. This place was so dear to him that at his request, several years after his death, his remains were reinterred there.</p><br>
<p>Led by Barton Stone, the Cane Ridge Revival is associated with the development of what became known as the Restoration Movement. Stone and several other ministers left the Presbyterian Church in 1804 and established the Christian Church. Another element of the Restoration Movement was Alexander Campbell&#39;s Disciples of Christ. In 1832, Stone and Campbell agreed to combine their efforts in the Restoration Movement. Later groups developed as the Churches of Christ and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, and several smaller groups.</p><br>
<h2>Meetinghouse</h2><br>
<p>The Christian Church used a log building as their meeting house; it was modernized many times. When the congregation ceased to meet there regularly in the 1920s, the building fell into disuse. Later, historically minded persons, predominantly from the Disciples, restored the building and preserved it by building a stone shrine to surround and protect it.</p><br>
<p>The restoration of the original slave gallery in the meetinghouse was the oldest documented such restoration in the United States. In the 1820s, the congregation had removed the slave gallery, because they supported abolitionism. When preservationists began restoration work in the 1930s, they re-installed the original cherry-railed gallery. It was found and returned from a local barn, where it had served as a hay loft for more than a century.</p><br>
<p>The meeting house continues to be used as a living church. A curator is available for guided tours by appointment.</p><br>
<p>The Barton Warren Stone Museum contains artifacts of the congregation, Barton W. Stone and his family, the Stone-Campbell movement, and antique farm and household equipment. The museum is open only in the summer. It also houses the office of the Cane Ridge Preservation Projects and a book shop.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>*Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, A Study of the American Camp Meeting. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1992.</p><br>
<p>*Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too: The Camp Meeting Family Tree. Hazleton: Holiness Archives, 1997.</p><br>
<p>*Conklin: Paul Keith. Cane Ridge: America&#39;s Pentecost. Madison: University Of Wisconsin Press, 1990.</p><br>
<p>*Dickinson, Hoke S. The Cane Ridge Reader. No Publication Data, 1972.</p><br>
<p>*Eslinger, Ellen. Citizens of Zion: The Social Origins of Camp Meeting Revivalism. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999.</p><br>
<p>*Murray, Iain H. Revivals and Revivalism. Carlisle, Pa: The Banner Of Truth Trust, 1994.</p><br>
<p>*Smith, Ted A. http://Www.Practicalmattersjournal.Org/Issue/2/Analyzing-Matters/Out-Of-The-Mouths-Of-Babes "Out of the Mouths of Babes: Exhortation by Children and the Great Revival In Kentucky", Practical Matters: A Transdisciplinary Multimedia Journal of Religious Practices and Practical Theology, 2, 2009.</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht Reformed Church is the fourth oldest Reformed Church in America congregation and is located in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York. The church was established in 1677 by ethnic Dutch residents in the town of New Utrecht, Brooklyn, several years after the English took over New Netherland. It is affiliated with the Reformed Church in America, a Protestant denomination. The cemetery was consecrated in 1654; 1300 dead are interred there. The Liberty Pole, the sixth on the site of the present church, was originally erected in 1783 at the end of the Revolutionary War to harass departing British troops.</p><br>
<p>The present church was built in 1828 of stones taken from the original church, built in 1700. Construction was supervised by US Army engineer, Rene Edward De Russy, who led the construction of Fort Hamilton at New York harbor. The parish house was built in 1892 and the parsonage in 1906.</p><br>
<p>The church was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966; the parish house and the cemetery received landmark status in 1998. Both the church and the cemetery are listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht Reformed Church jeh.JPGSteeple</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht parish house jeh.jpgParish House</p><br>
<p>NEW UTRECHT REFORMED CHURCH, KINGS COUNTY NY.jpgChurch</p><br>
<p>Mauna ʻAla  in the Hawaiian language, is the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii  and the final resting place of Hawaii&#39;s two prominent royal families: the Kamehameha Dynasty and the Kalākaua Dynasty.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, the area near an ancient burial site was known as Pohukaina. It is believed to be the name of a chief (sometimes spelled Pahukaina) who according to legend chose a cave in Kanehoalani in the Koʻolau Range for his resting place. The land belonged to Kekauluohi, who later ruled as Kuhina Nui, as part of her birthright.</p><br>
<p>After 1825, the first Western-style royal tomb was constructed for the bodies of King Kamehameha II and his queen Kamāmalu near the current ʻIolani Palace. They were buried on August 23, 1825. The idea was heavily influenced by the tombs at Westminster Abbey during Kamehameha II&#39;s trip to London. The mausoleum was a small house made of coral blocks with a thatched roof. It had no windows, and it was the duty of two chiefs to guard the iron-locked koa door day and night. No one was allowed to enter the vault except for burials or Memorial Day, a Hawaiian holiday celebrated on December 30. Over time, as more bodies were added, the small vault became crowded, so other chiefs and retainers were buried in unmarked graves nearby. In 1865 a selected eighteen coffins were removed to the Royal Mausoleum named Mauna ʻAla in Nuʻuanu Valley. But many chiefs remain on the site including: Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, Chiefess Kapiʻolani, and Haʻalilio.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the 19th century, the remains of aliʻi of Hawaiʻi island were buried at Hale o Keawe and Hale o Līloa. Other Western-style tombs include a burial site at Honolulu Fort which was lost when the fort was demolished in 1857, a tomb in Lahaina located near Halekamani, and a tomb on the island of Mokuʻula in Lahaina. The royal remains from the last two burial sites were transferred to the cemetery of Waiola Church in 1884.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The 2.75-acre (11,000 m) mausoleum was designed by architect Theodore Heuck. By 1862, the Royal Tomb at Pohukaina was full and there were no space for the coffins of Prince Albert, who died August 27, 1862, and King Kamehameha IV, who died November 30, 1863. Kamehameha IV&#39;s funeral was delayed for three months while a new mausoleum was built.</p><br>
<p>Immediately Kamehameha V, brother of Kamehameha IV, started construction of a new mausoleum building in the Nuʻuanu Valley on a site chosen by Kamehameha IV and his wife Queen Emma. The Right Reverend Thomas Nettleship Staley, first Anglican Bishop of Honolulu (1823–1898), oversaw construction. The west (ʻEwa) wing was completed at the end of January 1864. A large funeral procession February 3, 1864, brought the body of Kamehameha IV from ʻIolani Palace. His casket was placed on a stand in the new wing. Later in the evening, bearers brought the casket of Ka Haku o Hawaiʻi (as Prince Albert was known) and laid him to rest alongside his father. Queen Emma was so overcome with grief that she camped on the grounds of Mauna ʻAla, and slept in the mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>The mausoleum was completed in 1865, adjacent to the public 1844 Oahu Cemetery. The mausoleum seemed a fitting place to bury other past monarchs of the Kingdom of Hawaii and their families. The remains of past deceased royals were transferred in a torchlit ceremony at night leading from Pohukaina to the Nuʻuanu Valley on October 30, 1865.</p><br>
<p>Robert Crichton Wyllie, Minister of Foreign Affairs, was buried here in October 1865. Over time, the remains of almost all of Hawaii&#39;s monarchs, their consorts, and various princes and princesses would rest at the Royal Mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha I and William Charles Lunalilo are the only two kings not resting at the mausoleum. William Charles Lunalilo, the shortest-reigning Hawaiian monarch, (one year and 25 days only), was buried in the Lunalilo Tomb in the church cemetery resting in the courtyard of Kawaiahaʻo Church. Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena and Queen Keōpūolani are buried on Maui at Waiola Church.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha I&#39;s remains were hidden in a traditional practice to preserve the mana (power) of the aliʻi at the time of the Hawaiian religion. For several generations, descendants of Hoʻolulu, one of the few chosen to help bury the remains of Kamehameha, have been appointed as caretakers.</p><br>
<h3>Additional modifications</h3><br>
<p>On November 9, 1887, after the main mausoleum building became too crowded, the caskets belonging to members of the Kamehameha Dynasty were moved to the newly built Kamehameha Tomb, an underground vault commissioned by Charles Reed Bishop, husband of Bernice Pauahi Bishop. The Territory of Hawaii built a second underground crypt, the Wyllie Tomb (formerly known as the Queen Emma Tomb) in 1904 to separate the caskets of Robert Crichton Wyllie and the relatives of Queen Emma. In 1907, the Territory of Hawaii allocated $20,000 for the construction of a separate underground vault for the Kalākaua family. Queen Liliʻuokalani and Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole were consulted in the construction process. On June 24, 1910, the caskets from the Kalākaua family were moved to newly construct Kalākaua Crypt in a torchlit nighttime ceremony supervised by the former queen.</p><br>
<p>In 1922 the main building was converted to a chapel after the last royal remains were moved to tombs constructed on the grounds. The chapel was added to the National Register of Historic Places August 7, 1972.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, Abigail Kinoiki Kekaulike Kawānanakoa (1926–2022) became the most recent person to be buried in the Royal Mausoleum. Prior to her death there had not been a burial at the Royal Mausoleum since David Kalākaua Kawānanakoa in 1953. A new tomb was constructed since the Kalākaua vault was at capacity.</p><br>
<h2>Legal Status</h2><br>
<p>Mauna ʻAla was removed from the public lands of the United States by a joint resolution of Congress in 1900, two years after the annexation in 1898 of Hawaii by the Newlands Resolution and President William McKinley.</p><br>
<p>The Mausoleum is one of the only places in Hawaii where the flag of Hawaii can officially fly alone without the American flag. The other three places are Iolani Palace, the Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau Heiau and Thomas Square.</p><br>
<h2>Kahu of the Royal Mausoleum</h2><br>
<p>These are the keepers or kahu of the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna Ala:</p><br>
<p>Nahalau, till 1873</p><br>
<p>Joseph Keaoa, from July 10, 1873</p><br>
<p>Haumea, from May 3, 1878</p><br>
<p>Pius F. Koakanu, until March, 1885</p><br>
<p>Lanihau, from March 6, 1885</p><br>
<p>Keano, from July 31, 1886</p><br>
<p>Naholowaʻa, from September 17, 1888</p><br>
<p>Poʻomaikelani (1839–1895), from October 15, 1888</p><br>
<p>Maria Angela Kahaʻawelani Beckley Kahea (1847–1909), from March 24, 1893, to July 11, 1909</p><br>
<p>David Kaipeʻelua Kahea (1845–1921), from March 24, 1893, to 1915 (jointly with wife)</p><br>
<p>Frederick Malulani Beckley Kahea (1882–1949), from 1915 to 1947</p><br>
<p>William Edward Bishop Kaiheʻekai Taylor (1882–1956), from 1947 to 1956</p><br>
<p>Emily Kekahaloa Namauʻu Taylor, from 1956 to 1961</p><br>
<p>ʻIolani Luahine, from 1961 to 1965</p><br>
<p>Lydia Namahanaikaleleokalani Taylor Maiʻoho, from 1966 to 1994</p><br>
<p>William "Bill" John Kaiheʻekai Maiʻoho, from 1995 to 2015</p><br>
<p>William Bishop Kaiheʻekai "Kai" Maiʻoho, from 2015 to May 1, 2023</p><br>
<p>The Shot Tower located in Dubuque, Iowa, is one of the last remaining shot towers in the United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and remains a recognized symbol of the city. The tower stands 120 ft tall. At its location near the Mississippi River, the tower can be seen from the riverwalk. It underwent extensive renovations beginning in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The tower was built in 1856 to provide lead shot. The invention of the shot tower enabled economical production of many nearly perfect lead spheres of the right size to fit in a shot gun. To make the shot, molten lead was poured through a grate at the top of the tower. The droplets that fell from the grate were of relatively uniform size, and the fall provided enough time for the liquid-metal droplet to form into a sphere before landing in the water below. The water cooled the lead to its solid state, retaining the spherical shape.</p><br>
<p>The shot tower struggled almost immediately due to economic downturn from the Panic of 1857. A St. Louis company, Chadbourne & Co., purchased the Dubuque tower, but did not use it. After the war, the Standard Lumber Company used it as a fire watchtower.</p><br>
<p>The tower was abandoned after a series of fires in 1911 destroyed the local lumber industry and damaged the tower&#39;s wooden interior. The fire was determined to be arson, but no one was ever arrested. In 1976, the tower was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Tuckpointing and repairs soon followed, and in 2004, the Shot Tower became part of ongoing riverfront renovations.</p><br>
<p>Washington Place is a Greek Revival palace in the Hawaii Capital Historic District in Honolulu, Hawaii. It was where Queen Liliuokalani was arrested during the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Later it became the official residence of the governor of Hawaii. In 2007, it was designated as a National Historic Landmark. The current governor&#39;s residence was built in 2008 behind the historic residence, and is located on the same grounds as Washington Place.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>An American merchant sea captain, John Dominis (1796–1846) came to America in 1819 from Trieste, probably from a Croatian family. After making a number of voyages across the Pacific, he relocated to the islands in 1837 with his Bostonian wife Mary Jones Dominis (1803–1889) and son John Owen Dominis (1832–1891) from New York. The captain was awarded some land in 1842 as settlement of a lawsuit with the British Consul Richard Charlton. The captain continued to take voyages to raise money for the construction of a house. In 1846 he sailed for China on the Brig William Neilson, intending to purchase Chinese-made furniture for the house, which was nearing completion. The ship was lost at sea, along with the American Agent George Brown, and Mary Dominis became a widow. She rented out a suite of rooms to support herself and young John Owen. One of the first boarders was Anthony Ten Eyck, an American Commissioner to the islands appointed by President James K. Polk who established the American Legation in the house. Ten Eyck named the house "Washington Place" in a February 22, 1848 letter, after George Washington in celebration of the first US president&#39;s birthday. King Kamehameha III officially approved the name.</p><br>
<p>The American flag was raised at the residence until Mary Dominis&#39;s death in 1889 when Liliuokalani had it removed. In 1917, Liliuokalani raised the American flag at Washington Place in honor of five Hawaiian sailors who had perished in the sinking of the SS Aztec by German submarines. Her act was interpreted by many as her symbolic support of the United States.</p><br>
<p>The building was designed by the master carpenter Isaac Hart, who had helped build the first Iolani Palace. The building was also constructed by Daniel Jenner, an Italian master mason. The interior was originally finished by the master painter Israel Wright. Native Hawaiians were also involved with the construction of the building, but are not named individually by the archival records. Washington Place was constructed with "open lānais" on all sides.</p><br>
<p>The foundation of the building, the lower level walls and the lower columns are constructed of coral stone. The upper floor is of wood-frame construction. Washington Place conforms to period French Creole Greek Revival houses that were built along the lower Gulf-Coastal region of the southeastern United States. The home was constructed with an almost square core surrounded by a peristyle, a two tiered verandah, Tuscan columns on its upper floor, and a hipped roof. The interior of the home is arranged in a traditional Georgian floor plan, with four distinct parlors on the first floor and four bedchambers on the second floor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>William Little Lee made Washington Place his home from 1849&ndash;1854. Lee was instrumental in integrating a Western legal system in the Hawaiian Islands, based upon the Massachusetts model. Lee also authored the Great Mahele, which introduced private land ownership into Hawaiian culture.</p><br>
<p>Lydia Kamakaeha Pākī, the future Queen Liliuokalani and the heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii, married John Owen Dominis in 1862, making Washington Place the private residence of the princess and future queen. Another Massachusetts lawyer, Alfred S. Hartwell, rented a guest room from 1868 until 1872. He describes Mary as still expecting her husband to return any day.</p><br>
<p>Mary Dominis died on April 25, 1889, and John Owen Dominis died on August 27, 1891, leaving the property to Liliuokalani, who had just become Queen after the death of her brother, King Kalākaua.</p><br>
<h3>Arrest of the Queen</h3><br>
<p>During 1893, Washington Place was the site of the dramatic events of the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. It was there that the queen was arrested by the new governmental forces that were aided by a detachment of United States Marines. The queen was tried before a military tribunal, where she was charged with concealment of treason against the new government, the Republic of Hawaii. She was convicted and was confined for several months at Washington Place after her release from imprisonment at Iolani Palace.</p><br>
<p>Queen Liliuokalani resided at Washington Place for the remainder of her life. She died in the downstairs bedroom of the house on November 11, 1917. The home offers the citizens of Hawaii a strong sense of place and belonging in association with the kingdom and of Queen Liliuokalani&#39;s memory.</p><br>
<h3>Executive Mansion</h3><br>
<p>In her book, Hawaiis Story by Hawaiis Queen, Liliuokalani described the building as "a palatial dwelling" and a "choice tropical retreat in the midst of the chief city of the Hawaiian islands."</p><br>
<p>On May 14, 1921, the territorial legislature of Hawaii purchased Washington Place for $55,000 from the estate of Queen Liliuokalani to serve as the Executive Mansion of the Territorial Governor of Hawaii. It was remodeled in 1922 by Governor Wallace Rider Farrington. In all, it was the residence of twelve territorial and state governors of Hawaii. Technically, it was the residence of thirteen governors, because John Owen Dominis, Liliuokalani&#39;s consort, had been Governor of the island of Oahu from 1868 to 1891. The house served in this role until 2002, when it was converted into a historic house museum. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 18, 1973, and was designated a National Historic Landmark on March 29, 2007.</p><br>
<p>In 2002 a new governor&#39;s residence was built behind the historic Washington Place, within its grounds, and continues to serve the same purpose.</p><br>
<p>Grouseland, the William Henry Harrison Mansion and Museum, is a National Historic Landmark important for its Federal-style architecture and role in American history. The two-story, red brick home was built between 1802 and 1804 in Vincennes, Indiana, for William Henry Harrison  during his tenure from 1801 to 1812 as the first governor of the Indiana Territory. The residence was completed in 1804, and Harrison reportedly named it Grouseland due to the abundance of grouse in the area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1800, USA president John Adams appointed twenty-seven-year-old William Henry Harrison the first governor of the Indiana Territory. Soon after his arrival in Vincennes in 1801, Harrison began planning the construction of a home on 300 acre of land he purchased adjacent to the town. When Harrison was certain of remaining for a second term as territorial governor, construction began on his Federal-style mansion, which was built between 1802 and 1804.</p><br>
<p>Grouseland was home to William Henry and Anna Tuthill (Symmes) Harrison and their children until 1812. At least three of the Harrisons&#39; ten children were born at Grouseland, including John Scott Harrison, the father of Benjamin Harrison (the 23rd president of the United States). The Harrisons left Grouseland in 1812 and moved to North Bend, Ohio. Harrison served in the USA Army during the War of 1812, and later as a member of the Ohio Senate, the USA House of Representatives, and the USA Senate before his election in 1840 as the 9th president of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Grouseland was designed by the architect William Lindsay and constructed in the Federal style, reminiscent of the aristocratic homes where Harrison spent his boyhood in Virginia. Grouseland was a marked contrast to the log cabins of the Indiana Territory&#39;s other residents.</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, the territory was on the edge of the American frontier with few established roads, and Vincennes, the territorial capital, had an American and French population estimated at only 700. Grouseland was built at great personal expense to Governor Harrison; it is believed to have cost an estimated US$20,000 at the time of its construction.</p><br>
<p>Grouselands builder used skilled labor and local bricks manufactured not far from Vincennes. It is believed to have been the first brick building in Vincennes as well as the Indiana Territory. Grouseland was decorated in grand style with items imported from Europe. At least one biographer surmises that Harrisons motives in constructing such an elaborate home in the wilderness included establishing the respect due to him as governor, despite his relative youth at the time. Grouseland reflected Harrison&#39;s position and marked his place in American aristocracy. (William Henry Harrison was the youngest son of Benjamin Harrison, V, a signer of the Declaration of Independence.)</p><br>
<h3>Governor&#39;s home</h3><br>
<p>During Harrisons governorship of the Indiana Territory, Grouseland was the focal point of the social and official life of the territory. Visiting legislators were frequently entertained and overnight guests at the governors home.</p><br>
<p>Harrison also had two confrontations with the Shawnee leader Tecumseh at Grouseland. On August 12, 1810, Harrison met with Tecumseh, who was accompanied by 100 to 400 braves (sources report different numbers), on the lawn in front of Grouseland. The meeting lasted for eight days but ended without a treaty. Their differences were later settled in battle as part of Tecumsehs War. Harrison defeated Tenskwatawa (the Prophet), who was Tecumsehs brother, at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, and defeated Tecumseh at Battle of the Thames in 1813.</p><br>
<h3>Other uses</h3><br>
<p>After Harrisons departure from Grouseland in 1812, its next resident was Judge Benjamin Parke. In 1821, Grouseland was deeded to Harrisons son-in-law, John Cleves Symmes Harrison, who lived in the home with his wife, Clarissa, and their six children for about ten years. Harrison family heirs retained their home until 1850. Afterwards, Grouseland served several purposes, including a grain warehouse, library, hotel, and a private residence.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>In 1909 the Vincennes Water Company acquired the property and planned to demolish the historic home and use the site for other purposes. However, the Francis Vigo Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution raised funds to purchase the home and save it from demolition. By 1916 the local DAR chapter had raised US$2,000 from the community and were given a limited deed to property. The DAR restored the home to the period when William Henry Harrison lived there, including furnishing it with a few Harrison family possessions. It opened as a historical museum in 1911. The City of Vincennes acquired the water company in 1935 and gave the local DAR chapter a quitclaim deed to Grouseland.</p><br>
<h3>House museum</h3><br>
<p>Grouseland was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and listed on the National Register of Historical Places in 1966. Situated at the northwest corner of Park and Scott streets, within the present-day Vincennes Historic District, it is owned by the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, the organization that saved the building from destruction. The property is maintained by the Grouseland Foundation, a volunteer board of directors composed of DAR and non-DAR members that manages the structure and programs. The Grouseland Rifle is owned by the Foundation and exhibited at Grouseland; dating from the early 19th century, it has been designated the state firearm of Indiana. The main campus of Vincennes University is adjacent to the property. Other state historic sites in Vincennes include the Territorial Capitol building.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Grouselands present-day site on a half-city block about 100 yd from the Wabash River was part of Harrisons 300 acre estate in Vincennes. The two-story, redbrick home in the Federal style has a high roof and dormer windows with an attic. The structure rests on a basement with a limestone foundation. The main house and rear dependency are joined by a covered passage. The first floor of the main house has a parlor (council chamber) to the left and a dining room to the right of an entry and hallway leading to a library at the rear. The second floor has six bedrooms and a passageway connecting to the rear dependency.</p><br>
<p>The Dubuque Star Brewery, located in Dubuque, Iowa, is a building that for many years made Dubuque Star beers. The brewery is located just north of the Ice Harbor in Dubuque.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dubuque Star was established by Joseph Rhomberg in 1898. Until the beginning of Prohibition, the brewery produced Dubuque Star beer. As with many other breweries, the Dubuque Star brewery was forced to close down. Before Prohibition, there were 138 breweries in the state, but afterwards Dubuque Star was the only small brewery left in the state.</p><br>
<p>With the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, the brewery was reopened. Because of its location near the Mississippi River, when the river flooded it would often cause problems for the brewery. The 1965 floods were particularly bad. The brewery operators made protective measures for the river reaching 23 feet, but the river soon reached 26 feet. This caused serious damage to the lower floors of the building, and the production equipment.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, Joseph Pickett purchased the brewery. He found that the brewery was not in good shape. Most of the equipment was outdated 1930s era equipment. The brewery had very low market share. Pickett began a massive renovation and modernization of the brewery.</p><br>
<p>Pickett introduced Pickett&#39;s Premium beer, which by the late 1970s accounted for about 12% of sales in the region. The hospitality room was featured in the movie F.I.S.T., as well as the 1981 comedy Take This Job and Shove It.</p><br>
<p>Agri Industries purchased the brewery in 1980. They produced Rhomberg Beer until 1985. The beers made by the brewery were technically superior products, but the company had a limited advertising budget, which resulted in limited public exposure. The efforts were not successful, and the brewery closed in 1985. There were a couple more attempts in the following years to reopen the brewery. However, despite making superior products, the efforts were again not successful, and the brewery was closed down in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Between 1988 and 1998 or thereabout, the brewery was operated by Zele Brewing Company management. A number of contract brewing were made and the brewery showed promise. However, this was a period when large breweries choked distribution and forced their distributors to abandon micro breweries or craft beers, "shake out period." This shake out period lasted between 1996 and 2003. During this period, Erlanger Beer Brand was owned by Stroh&#39;s and it was a licensed product. It also brewed a private label for TGIF chain which increased its production to about 25,000 barrels or more a year. It also brewed under joint ventures for Tuan Chau Tien.</p><br>
<p>The city of Dubuque acquired the building through eminent domain proceedings as part of the riverfront renovation efforts. Work began to renovate the brewery. Madison, Wisconsin based Alexander Company was brought in to redevelop the site, however they were unable to bring any tenants in for the brewery.</p><br>
<p>On 23 March 2006, it was announced that Stone Cliff Winery had signed an agreement with Port of Dubuque LLC to lease part of the brewery. This lease was contingent on the city and Port of Dubuque signing a development deal. Under the lease, Stone Cliff Winery leased 10,000 feet of the ground floor for an expanded winery and tasting center - which they opened in the summer of 2007. The Dubuque Star brewing company is owned and operated by Jeffery Monroe in Iowa City, Iowa.</p><br>
<p>In April 2011, Ruhl&Ruhl Realtors moved into the 3rd floor of the building.</p><br>
<p>As of 18 February 2013, The Star Restaurant, which was on the 2nd floor, is closed.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Eagle Point Software moved into the 2nd floor of the building.</p><br>
<p>The Moana Hotel is a historic hotel building in Honolulu, Hawaii, located at 2365 Kalākaua Avenue in the Waikiki neighborhood. Built in the late 19th century as the first hotel in Waikiki, the Moana opened in 1901. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The hotel was also inducted into Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, in 1989. The building is currently part of the resort complex known as Moana Surfrider, A Westin Resort & Spa and is managed by Westin Hotels & Resorts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Moana Hotel</h3><br>
<p>The wealthy Honolulu landowner Walter Chamberlain Peacock, in an effort to establish a fine resort in the previously neglected Waikiki area of Honolulu, incorporated the Moana Hotel Company in 1896. Working with a design by architect Oliver G. Traphagen and $150,000 in capital, The Lucas Brothers contractors completed the structure in 1901. Construction of The Moana marked the beginning of tourism in Waikiki, becoming the first hotel amidst the bungalows and beach houses. In Hawaiian, moana means open sea or ocean.</p><br>
<p>The Moana&#39;s architecture was influenced by European styles popular at the time, with Ionic columns and intricate woodwork and plaster detailing throughout the building. The Moana was designed with a grand porte cochere on the street side and wide lānais on the ocean side. Some of the 75 guest rooms had telephones and bathrooms (unusual at the time), and the hotel featured a billiard room, saloon, main parlor, reception area, and library. Peacock installed the first electric-powered elevator in the islands at the Moana, which is still in use. Design features of the original structure that survive to this day include extra-wide hallways (to accommodate steamer trunks), high ceilings, and cross-ventilation windows (to cool the rooms prior to air conditioning).</p><br>
<p>The Moana officially opened on March 11, 1901. Its first guests were a group of Shriners, who paid $1.50 per night for their rooms. Peacock did not find success with his endeavor and sold the hotel on May 2, 1905 to Alexander Young, a prominent Honolulu businessman who also owned the adjacent Honolulu Seaside Hotel and the Alexander Young Hotel in downtown Honolulu. After Young died in 1910, his Territorial Hotel Company operated the hotel.</p><br>
<p>The Moana grew along with the popularity of Hawaiian tourism. Two floors were added in 1918, along with Italian Renaissance-styled concrete wings on each side of the hotel, creating its H-shape seen today. In 1925, the hotel opened a series of wood frame bungalows on a large plot of land directly across Kalakaua Avenue, where the ʻĀinahau estate of Princess Kaʻiulani had been located.</p><br>
<p>The Matson Navigation Company and Castle & Cooke bought a controlling interest in the Territorial Hotel Company in 1925, in order to demolish their Honolulu Seaside Hotel and construct the Royal Hawaiian Hotel on the site. Tourism to Hawaii collapsed due to the Great Depression and the Territorial Hotel Company declared bankruptcy in September 1933, with Matson assuming control of their hotels through its Hawaii Properties Ltd. division, and Castle & Cooke writing off their investment.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the 1930s, the hotel was known as the Moana-Seaside Hotel & Bungalows, taking on the name of its demolished neighbor.</p><br>
<p>In 1941, Hawaii Properties Ltd. was dissolved and Matson assumed direct control of the hotel.</p><br>
<p>The hotel&#39;s outward appearance was altered slightly over the years, including "updates" to such designs as Art Deco in the 1930s and Bauhaus in the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>From 1935 to 1975, the Moana&#39;s courtyard hosted the Hawaii Calls live radio broadcast. Legend has it that listeners mistook the hiss of the radio transmission as the waves breaking on the beach. Upon learning of this, the host instructed the sound man to run down to the waterfront to actually record the sound, which became a staple of the show.</p><br>
<p>In 1952, Matson built a new hotel adjacent to the Moana on the southeast side, called the SurfRider Hotel. In 1953, Matson demolished the Moana&#39;s bungalows across the street and, two years later, opened the new Princess Kaiulani Hotel on the site. Matson sold all of their Waikiki hotel properties to the Sheraton Hotels and Resorts in 1959.</p><br>
<p>Sheraton sold the Moana and the SurfRider to Japanese industrialist Kenji Osano and his Kyo-Ya Company in December 1963 for $10.7 million, though Sheraton continued to manage them. In 1969, Kyo-Ya built a towering new hotel on the Moana&#39;s northwest side. They named it the Surfrider Hotel. The older SurfRider Hotel on the other side was turned into part of the Moana, named the Diamond Head Wing.</p><br>
<h3>Moana Surfrider</h3><br>
<p>In 1989, a $50 million restoration restored the Moana to its 1901 appearance and incorporated the 1969 Sheraton Surfrider Hotel and the 1952 SurfRider Hotel buildings with the 1901 Moana Hotel building into one beachfront resort, the Sheraton Moana Surfrider. The property has been recognized with the President&#39;s Historic Preservation Award, the National Preservation Honor Award, the Hawaii Renaissance Award, and the Hotel Sales and Marketing Association International Golden Bell Award. The main historic section of the hotel, the Banyan Wing, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The hotel was the base of operations for about 24 White House staff members who accompanied President Barack Obama to his Winter White House at Plantation Estate during Christmas visits.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Starwood Hotels & Resorts, the management company of the Moana, rebranded the hotel from Sheraton Hotels and Resorts to Westin Hotels & Resorts.</p><br>
<p>On November 12, 2024, Moana Surfrider hotel workers ratified a new contract.</p><br>
<h2>The banyan tree</h2><br>
<p>In the center of the Moana Surfrider&#39;s courtyard stands a large banyan tree. The Indian banyan tree was planted in 1904 by Jared Smith, Director of the Department of Agriculture Experiment Station. When planted, the tree was nearly seven feet tall and about seven years old. It now stands 75 ft high and spans 150 ft across the courtyard.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, the historic tree was one of the first to be listed on Hawaii&#39;s Rare and Exceptional Tree List. It has also been selected by the Board of Trustees of the America the Beautiful Fund as the site for a Hawaii Millennium Landmark Tree designation, which selects one historic tree in each state for protection in the new millennium.</p><br>
<h2>Hotel lore</h2><br>
<h3>Rich and famous</h3><br>
<p>As soon as the Moana Hotel opened, a non-stop flood of tourists from the mainland United States poured through its doors. Its most famous guest came in 1920. The Prince of Wales, who would later become King Edward VIII, gallivanted around the Moana Hotel property and reportedly fell in love with the private pier, from which he frequently dove into the ocean.</p><br>
<p>In August 1922, author Agatha Christie and her husband, Colonel Archie Christie, stayed on holiday. They were traveling around the world as part of the Dominion Mission of the British Empire Exhibition, promoting the exhibition to be held in England in 1924.</p><br>
<p>In February 1905, Jane Stanford, co-founder of Stanford University, died of strychnine poisoning in a room at the Moana Hotel. Stanford is believed to have been murdered, but the source of the strychnine was never identified.</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento State Historic Park occupies around one third of the property within the Old Sacramento Historic District of Sacramento, California. The Old Sacramento Historic District is a USA National Historic Landmark District. The Historic District is sometimes abbreviated as Old Sacramento, or Old Sac, and since the 1960s has been restored and developed as a significant tourist attraction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The city of Sacramento grew up in the mid-nineteenth century as a development from Sutter&#39;s Fort. However, the Fort was some distance from the Sacramento River, which was the main means of transport to the coast of California, and the area that would become the modern city developed along the waterfront.</p><br>
<p>Before Sacramentos extensive levee system was put in place, the area flooded quite regularly. Because of this, the citys streets were raised a level. Most of the sidewalks and storefronts have been filled in; however, many tunnels still remain throughout Old Sacramento and the downtown area.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, the area had fallen into disrepair and disrepute. A large effort was made to secure the area&#39;s future as an outdoor living history center similar to Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. Several historically significant buildings were moved or reconstructed. Those that were beyond repair were demolished.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Old Sacramento Historic District covers the area between the river frontage and Interstate 5, between I Street and the Capitol Mall. The State Historic Park comprises about a third of the total acreage of the district including half of the waterfront, a large grassy area and railroad features. Virtually all the buildings in this area date from the 19th century, the most notable dating back to the period immediately after the disastrous fire of 1852, and show a reasonable approximation of their original appearance, though they have required varying degrees of reconstruction to restore to them to that state. However, few, if any, still serve their original purpose; most of them now house restaurants, gift shops, or other businesses catering to tourists.</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento State Historic Park attracts over 5 million visitors annually. Regular events include the Sacramento Music Festival (formerly known as the Sacramento Jazz Jubilee), New Years Eve events, the St. Patricks Day Parade, the World Music and Dance Festival and Mardi Gras.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>While the architecture from this period is commonly attributed to Victorian gold miners, characteristics of West End, such as multi-storied buildings, large arched doorways, full-height balcony windows and the use of decorative wrought-iron balconies, were most ubiquitous in parts of Spain and the Spanish colonies. This influence may be attributed to the fact that the period of Spanish, then Mexican, rule in California enjoyed immigration from all over the Atlantic, including Spain and the Canary Islands, and the Spanish colonies.</p><br>
<p>The architecture of Old Town Sacramento (formerly known as West End) exhibits observable characteristics similar to that of San Juan (Puerto Rico), Havana (Cuba), Tampico (Mexico), Seville (Spain), Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands) and Madrid (Spain).</p><br>
<p>While the architectural style of Old Sacramento, with its wrought iron balconies and evenly spaced full-height windows may remind one of Paris, Sacramento&#39;s oldest buildings predate the Haussmann Projects that renovated large areas of Paris in that style.</p><br>
<h2>Historic buildings</h2><br>
<p>Notable buildings include:</p><br>
<p>B. F. Hastings Building, the National Historic Landmark western terminal of the Pony Express and the first location of the California Supreme Court; also housed the office of the Alta California Telegraph Company; features a branch of the Wells Fargo History Museum</p><br>
<p>Big Four House, a National Historic Landmark building constructed through the joint efforts of California&#39;s railroad pioneers: Collis Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Leland Stanford and Charles Crocker, known as The Big Four.</p><br>
<p>Lady Adams Building - oldest non-residential building in Old Sacramento and is California Historical Landmark No. 603.</p><br>
<p>Pioneer Telegraph Station</p><br>
<p>D.O. Mills Bank Building - California Historical Landmark No. 609.</p><br>
<p>Adams and Company Building - California Historical Landmark No. 607.</p><br>
<p>Sacramento Engine Company No. 3, the oldest remaining firehouse in Sacramento</p><br>
<p>The Firehouse Restaurant (1853), redbrick firehouse; (1960) restaurant</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento Schoolhouse Museum</p><br>
<p>Eagle Theatre - only survived from 1849 to 1850 but has been reconstructed</p><br>
<p>Sam Brannan House built in 1853, was also Jones Hotel and Vernon House.</p><br>
<p>Booth Company Building also California Governor Booth&#39;s mansion.</p><br>
<p>What Cheer House</p><br>
<p>Morse Building - Dr. John Frederick Morse, Sacramento&#39;s pioneer doctor.</p><br>
<h2>Memorials</h2><br>
<p>The district contains many memorials to the founders of the city and of the California and transcontinental railroad and other transport systems, including the Theodore Judah monument and the Pony Express Statue.</p><br>
<h2>Current attractions</h2><br>
<p>Old Sacramento is the site of the California State Railroad Museum, the California State Military Museum, the Sacramento History Museum, the Wells Fargo History Museum and the Old Sacramento Interpretive Center.</p><br>
<p>Other attractions available for visitors include rides in horse-drawn carriages, historic trains from the former Central Pacific Railroad passenger station, and cruises on historic riverboats. A historic sternwheel riverboat, the Delta King, is moored in the river and serves as a hotel, restaurant and theater. Riverfront Park, located north of J Street, allows access to the water&#39;s edge.</p><br>
<p>The Sacramento Valley Rail Station is just a short walk away from Old Sacramento.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretive programs</h2><br>
<p>The manages several programs to highlight the history of the city, including historical reenactments by costumed docents, as well as tours of Old Sacramento&#39;s underground level. During October, there is also a special Halloween themed ghost tour.</p><br>
<p>Every Labor Day weekend, Old Sacramento holds its annual. During this time, the paved streets are covered with several tons of dirt and automobile traffic is barred from the area. Old Sac&#39;s regular corps of costumed docents is supplemented by extra volunteers and professional reenactors to recreate life in Sacramento as it was in the mid to late 1800s.</p><br>
<p>Necker Island  is a small uninhabited island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is located at {{coord|23|34|30|N|164|42|01|W|region:US-HI_type:isle|display=inline,title}} in the Pacific Ocean, 430 mi northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, 155 mi northwest of Nihoa, and 8 mi north of the Tropic of Cancer. It is part of the state of Hawaii in the United States. It contains important prehistoric archaeological sites of the Hawaiian culture and is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.</p><br>
<p>The United States Census Bureau reports Necker Island&#39;s land area as 45.193 acre. The island is rocky with steep sides and has very little soil. Its highest elevation is 277 ft. The island is named after Jacques Necker, a finance minister of Louis XVI.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, Necker Island is part of the City and County of Honolulu in the state of Hawaii. However, as part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, it is administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It has no resident human population.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The remnant of a volcanic cone, Necker Island is located about 120 km southeast of the French Frigate Shoals on the northwestern end of a large, shallow ocean bank. It is a hook-shaped rocky ridge about 1.3 km long and between 60 and wide. the island is steep-sided and barren, with very little soil, It is the second-smallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, with a total area of 45.193 acre according to the United States Census Bureau or 41 acre or 39.5 acre according to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.</p><br>
<p>The westernmost point on Necker Island is Mo&#39;o Point (or Mo&#39;o Head). The island&#39;s "hook" is Northwest Cape, a narrow spur that reaches a maximum height of 48 meters (156 ft) and juts northeastward from the west end of the island for 183 m. Northwest Cape is connected to the rest of the island by a narrow gap that is barely above sea level. Northwest Cape&#39;s tip is the northernmost point of the island.</p><br>
<p>The main ridge of the island and Northwest Cape combine to partially enclose Shark Bay along the northern shore of the island; the bay opens to the northeast and usually is subject to rough seas. Along the island&#39;s western shore, West Cove lies between Mo&#39;o Point and the southern end of Northwest Cape. A small islet, 300 ft long and rising 10 ft above sea level, lies just off Necker Island&#39;s eastern tip.</p><br>
<p>The main ridge of Necker Island has five peaks. East to west, they are:</p><br>
<p>*Siever&#39;s Peak, 61 m high</p><br>
<p>*Bowl Hill (or Bryan Peak), 79 m high</p><br>
<p>*Summit Hill (or Vaughn Peak), 84 meters (277 ft) high, the island&#39;s highest point</p><br>
<p>*Flagpole Hill, 56.4 m high</p><br>
<p>*Annexation Peak (also Annexation Hill or Captain Brown Peak), 75 meters (247 ft) high</p><br>
<p>Bowl Cave is located on the northern slope of Bowl Hill. It is an important archaeological site.</p><br>
<p>Necker Island has an average annual rainfall of just under 25 in.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Vegetation on Necker Island is limited to low shrubs and grasses, none more than 2 ft tall. Five species of plants are known to occur:</p><br>
<p>*Goosefoot shrub (Chenopodium oahuense), found on the island&#39;s terraced slopes</p><br>
<p>*Bunch grass (Panicum torridum) (i.e., kakonakona), which grows on the north slope of the ridge</p><br>
<p>*Purslane (Portulaca lutea) (i.e., ihi weed), found on flat tops of the ridge</p><br>
<p>*Pickle weed (Sesuvium portulacastrum), a patch of which grows on the lower northeastern slope of Annexation Hill, where ocean spray from waves breaking in Shark Bay can reach it</p><br>
<p>*Ohai shrub (Sesbania tomentasa), which grows on the crest of the ridge</p><br>
<p>The forester of the Territory of Hawaii attempted to introduce six other species of plants to Necker Island in June 1923, but all had died out by the latter half of the 1930s, if not earlier.</p><br>
<p>The island is also noted for large numbers of birds. during nesting season, an estimated 60,000 birds nest on the island, and their eggs cover virtually every piece of level ground. No land birds live on the island. Land animals found on the island include land snails and 15 species of insect found nowhere else, as well as wolf spiders and bird ticks.</p><br>
<p>Although it is the second-smallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Necker Island has the second-largest surrounding marine habitat among the islands, totaling 385,000 acre, with Shark Bay, West Cove, Northwest Cape, and miles of shallow reef to the southeast of the island providing large offshore habitats. Runoff from the heavily eroded rock surfaces of the island and the constant wave action that scours its underwater basalt structure interfere with the growth of corals; little coral life exists in the shallow areas surrounding the island, and it lacks a fringing reef. However, 16 species of stony coral live in the area, and Necker is the easternmost island in the Hawaiian archipelago where table corals of the genus Acropora are found. Gray reef sharks and manta rays are common off the island, and Hawaiian monk seals populate its shores, some giving birth to pups there. Green sea turtles bask on the shore in the narrow gap between the main island and Northwest Cape, but they do not breed on Necker Island because the island lacks sandy beaches in which they could lay their eggs. A great abundance and diversity of sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and lobsters live in Shark Bay. Extensive deeper "shelves" extend many miles from the island&#39;s shallow reef, especially to the southeast, and commercial fishing takes place over these shelves, which produce much of Hawaii&#39;s catch of green jobfish, known locally as gray snapper or uku. Deep sea fish types that live hundreds of meters (yards) below the surface along the underwater slopes of Necker Island include fishes of the orders Stomiiformes, Gadiformes, Myctophiformes, and Aulopiformes.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Necker Island is known for its numerous religious sites and cultural objects.</p><br>
<p>The heiau on Necker Island and Nihoa are unique in the Hawaiian chain representing a raised pavement of basalt stones with upright stones placed across this pavement often near the edges as opposed to the form common to other islands in the chain represented by a high stacked stone wall enclosing a central space. This difference in form represents an earlier iteration of Hawaiian monumental architecture that offers a unique perspective on cultural norms prior to the abandonment of Necker. Thanks to this difference in form, scholars often use the term &#39;marae&#39; as opposed to &#39;heiau&#39; in reference to these structures and some scholars argue that the shift in form represents a shift in ritual practice in Hawaii.</p><br>
<p>Artifacts excavated on Necker Island show a remarkable number of items that would normally be made out of wood rendered in stone. This is especially true of the presence of a series of remarkable carved stone bowls and a bird snare that would have required far more time and effort to create from stone. Additionally, a series of human figures carved from local stone have been recovered from Necker. These statues are up to 1.5 feet (0.5 m) in length and differ in style and medium to similar sculptures (usually rendered in wood) recovered elsewhere in Hawaii. Other artifacts include adzes, fish and squid lures, hammer stones, awls, and other stone tools commonly found across the Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>According to the oral traditions of the people of Kauai, which lies to the southeast, Necker Island was the last known refuge for a race of mythical "little people" called the Menehune. According to the legend, the Menehune settled on Necker Island after being chased off Kauai by the stronger Polynesians and subsequently built the various stone structures there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Geological research in the early 21st century indicates that Necker Island is about 10 million years old. While it rises only about 84 meters (277 ft) above sea level now, it reached 1,000 m in height earlier in its history and at one time was comparable in size to modern Oahu.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208869</p><br>
<p>National Academy of Sciences. (2004). Evolution in Hawaii: A Supplement to Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, by Steve Olson. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004.</p><br>
<p>Hawaiians appear to have started visiting Necker Island a few hundred years after they settled the main Hawaiian Islands. Archaeologists believe that the island&#39;s poor soil for farming and its small size and relative lack of rainfall made it uninhabitable, and that the Hawaiians visited from Nihoa and other nearby islands to worship at religious sites without establishing any permanent settlements.</p><br>
<p>The French explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse was on a mission of exploration for the French Academy of Sciences aboard the ships L&#39;Astrolabe (under command of Fleuriot de Langle) and La Boussole and had just discovered the French Frigate Shoals (Basse des Frégates Françaises) and his namesake rock La Perouse Pinnacle when on November 4, 1786, he became the first European to visit Necker Island. La Pérouse did not attempt to land on the island due to its nearly vertical sides and the violent seas breaking on its shore, but he sailed within a third of a league of it and named it after Jacques Necker, a Genevan banker and statesman who served as finance minister for Louis XVI of France. Although the expedition was lost at sea in 1788, it was able to send its logs home before its loss, bringing the island&#39;s existence to the attention of Europeans. The first people to set foot on Necker Island in modern times appear to have been the British seaman John Turnbull of the ship Margaret, who visited the Hawaiian Islands between December 17, 1802, and January 21, 1803, and two Hawaiian pearl divers in his employ; the three men landed on the island during an expedition to find pearls on a reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>Captain John or William Paty (sources disagree on Paty&#39;s first name) claimed Necker Island for the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1857, although he did not land on the island. The claim was disputed over the following decades. In January 1859, United States Navy Lieutenant J. M. Brook aboard the survey schooner visited Necker Island and determined its position. During the summer of 1859, Captain N. C. Brook of the Hawaiian barque Gambia passed the island during a sealing and exploration voyage, but did not report landing on it.</p><br>
<p>As late as the early 1890s, the Kingdom of Hawaii&#39;s claim to Necker Island remained in dispute, and the United Kingdom was considering the island as a potential waypoint location for a submarine communications cable between Canada and Australia as part of the British Empire telegraph network known informally as the All Red Line. The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 and replaced by the Provisional Government of Hawaii, and when the British corvette arrived at Honolulu in 1894, the provisional government&#39;s president, Sanford B. Dole, became concerned that the United Kingdom was about to establish a claim to Necker Island. Wishing to curry favor with the United States rather than the United Kingdom, Dole immediately dispatched an expedition under Captain James A. King to Necker to annex the island. On May 27, 1894, a landing party of 12 men led by King went ashore on Necker for four hours, raised the flag of Hawaii on what became known as Annexation Hill, and read an annexation proclamation. The move brought international disputes over claims to the island to an end and the island was included in the Republic of Hawaii when it was founded on July 4, 1894, although the British government continued to attempt to negotiate with the Hawaiian government over use of Necker Island and on September 24, 1894, Champion landed a party on the island. On July 12, 1895, King led a Hawaiian government expedition — which also included the first director of the Bishop Museum, William Tufts Brigham, and Professor William DeWitt Alexander — to Necker to survey and map the island and conduct archaeological research. On August 12, 1898, the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands, including Necker Island, and Necker was included in the Territory of Hawaii upon its creation on April 30, 1900.</p><br>
<p>In 1902, the United States Fish Commission research ship USFC Albatross visited Necker Island, and her personnel thought they discovered the "Necker Island tern" there, as well as on Nihoa and at the French Frigate Shoals, during their visit, although the bird later was determined to be a subspecies of the blue-grey noddy, already known from farther south in the Pacific. The island was leased for commercial fishing purposes for 21 years on June 2, 1904, and on February 3, 1909, it became part of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, managed jointly by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Territory of Hawaii.</p><br>
<p>George N. Wilcox visited Necker Island twice on unrecorded dates, and the United States Revenue Cutter Service revenue cutter USRC Thetis visited the island in 1910 and 1913, as did an expedition led by H. L. Tucker in 1917. The warden of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation landed on the island on October 6, 1919, and found stone artifacts during his visit. The Tanager Expedition visited Necker Island in 1923 and 1924, and is noted for exploring the island&#39;s biology and archaeology; during its first visit, from June 12 to 29, 1923, it mapped the island and studied its flora and fauna in detail, and on its return visit from July 14 to July 17, 1924, it conducted a thorough archaeological survey.</p><br>
<p>On August 21, 1959, the state of Hawaii was created, and Necker was included in the new state. Because of Necker Island&#39;s usage by Native Hawaiians as a ceremonial and religious site in Ancient Hawaii, the United States government added the island to its National Register of Historic Places in 1988. In 1997, members of the Native Hawaiian organization Hui Mälama I Nä Kupuna O Hawaiʻi Nei ("Hawaiʻi Ancestral Care Association") visited the island to rebury human bones found there which had been transported to Honolulu and kept at Bishop Museum.</p><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, Necker Island was a place of study for benthic invertebrates and algal assemblages. On June 15, 2006, the United States established the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, with Necker Island within its boundaries.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Access to Necker Island is by boat, and is quite difficult because of the island&#39;s nearly vertical coastline. Heavy surf usually precludes landings along the coast in Shark Bay, but a small lee exists west of Northwest Cape, and landing on rocky shelves there is possible in moderately calm weather but can be dangerous in high surf.</p><br>
<p>Visits to Necker Island are permitted only for scientific, educational, and cultural purposes and require the approval of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, which gives preference to scientific and cultural visits.</p><br>
<p>Fraunces Tavern is a museum and restaurant in New York City, situated at 54 Pearl Street at the corner of Broad Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The location played a prominent role in history before, during, and after the American Revolution. At various points in its history, Fraunces Tavern served as a headquarters for George Washington, a venue for peace negotiations with the British, and housing federal offices in the Early Republic.</p><br>
<p>Fraunces Tavern has been owned since 1904 by Sons of the Revolution in the State of New York Inc., which carried out a major conjectural reconstruction, and claim it is Manhattan&#39;s oldest surviving building. The museum interprets the building and its history, along with varied exhibitions of art and artifacts. The tavern is a tourist site and a part of the American Whiskey Trail and the New York Freedom Trail.</p><br>
<p>It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a New York City designated landmark. In addition, the block on which Fraunces Tavern is located is a National Historic Landmark District and a New York City designated landmark district.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Revolutionary history</h3><br>
<p>New York Mayor Stephanus van Cortlandt built his home in 1671 on the site, but retired to his manor on the Hudson River and gave the property in 1700 to his son-in-law, Étienne "Stephen" DeLancey, a French Huguenot who had married Van Cortlandt&#39;s daughter, Anne. The DeLancey family contended with the Livingston family for leadership of the Province of New York.</p><br>
<p>DeLancey built the current building as a house in 1719. The small yellow bricks used in its construction were imported from the Dutch Republic and the sizable mansion ranked highly in the province for its quality.</p><br>
<p>His heirs sold the building in 1762 to Samuel Fraunces who converted the home into the popular tavern, first named the Queen&#39;s Head, and periodically known as Boltons Tavern or The Coffee House.</p><br>
<p>Before the American Revolution, the building was one of the meeting places of the secret society, the Sons of Liberty. During the tea crisis caused by the British Parliaments passage of the Tea Act 1773, the Patriots forced a British naval captain who tried to bring tea to New York to give a public apology at the building. The Patriots, disguised as American Indians (like those of the Boston Tea Party), then dumped the ships tea cargo into New York Harbor.</p><br>
<p>In 1768, the New York Chamber of Commerce was founded by a meeting in the building. On June 13, 1771, King George III of Great Britain granted a royal charter to establish "The Society of the New York Hospital in the City of New York in America" and a Board of Governors for the "reception of such patients as require medical treatment, chirurgical management and maniacs." The first regular meeting of the Board of Governors of what is now known as NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital was held at Fraunces Tavern on July 24, 1771.</p><br>
<h3>Revolution</h3><br>
<p>In August 1775, Americans, principally the Hearts of Oak – a student militia of King&#39;s College, of which Alexander Hamilton was a member – took possession of cannons from the artillery battery at the southern point of Manhattan and fired on HMS Asia. The British Royal Navy ship retaliated by firing a 32-gun broadside on the city, sending a cannonball through the roof of the building.</p><br>
<p>When the war was all but won, the building was the site of "British-American Board of Inquiry" meetings, which negotiated to ensure to American leaders that no "American property" (meaning former slaves who were emancipated by the British for their military service) be allowed to leave with British troops. Led by Brigadier General Samuel Birch, board members reviewed the evidence and testimonies that were given by freed slaves every Wednesday from April to November 1783, and British representatives were successful in ensuring that almost all of the loyalist black people of New York maintained their liberty and could be evacuated with the "Redcoats" when they left if so desired.</p><br>
<p>Through this process, Birch created the Book of Negroes.</p><br>
<h4>Washington&#39;s farewell to his officers</h4><br>
<p>A week after British troops had evacuated New York on November 25, 1783, the tavern hosted an elaborate "turtle feast" dinner, on December 4, 1783, in the building&#39;s Long Room for USA Gen. George Washington during which he bade farewell to his officers of the Continental Army by saying "ith a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." After his farewell, he took each one of his officers by the hand for a personal word.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Revolution</h3><br>
<p>In January 1785, New York City became the seat of the Confederation Congress, the nation&#39;s central government under the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." The departments of Foreign Affairs, Finance and War had their offices at Fraunces Tavern.</p><br>
<p>With the ratification of the United States Constitution in March 1789, the Confederation Congress&#39;s departments became federal departments, and New York City became the first official national capital. The inauguration of George Washington as first President of the United States took place in April 1789. Under the July 1789 Residence Act, Congress moved the national capital to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for a 10-year period, while the permanent national capital was under construction in what is now Washington, D.C. The federal departments vacated their offices in the building and moved to Philadelphia in 1790.</p><br>
<h2>19th and 20th centuries</h2><br>
<p>The building operated throughout much of the 19th century, but suffered several serious fires beginning in 1832. Having been rebuilt several times, the structure&#39;s appearance was changed to the extent that the original building design is not known. The building was owned by Malvina Keteltas in the early 1800s. Ernst Buermeyer and his family leased part of the property in 1845 and ran a hotel called the Broad Street House at this location until 1860. After a disastrous fire in 1852, two stories were added, making the Tavern a total of five stories high. In 1890, the taproom was lowered to street level and the first floor exterior was remodeled, and its original timbers sold as souvenirs. The Manhattan local society of the National Society of the Children of the American Revolution is located at Fraunces Tavern. As of 2020, the Senior Society President is Ms. Elsye Richardson.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>In 1900, the tavern was slated for demolition by its owners, who reportedly wanted to use the land for a parking lot. A number of organizations, most notably the Daughters of the American Revolution, worked to preserve it, and convinced New York state government leaders to use their power of eminent domain and designate the building as a park (which was the only clause of the municipal ordinances that could be used for protection, as laws were not in place at the time for the subject of "historic preservation", then in its infancy). The temporary designation was later rescinded when the property was acquired in 1904 by the Sons of the Revolution In the State of New York Inc., primarily with funds willed by Frederick Samuel Tallmadge, the grandson of Benjamin Tallmadge, George Washington&#39;s chief of intelligence during the Revolution (a plaque depicting Tallmadge is affixed to the building). An extensive reconstruction was completed in 1907 under the supervision of early historic preservation architect, William Mersereau.</p><br>
<p>A guide book of the era called the tavern "the most famous building in New York".</p><br>
<p>Historian Randall Gabrielan wrote in 2000 that "Mersereau claimed his remodeling of Fraunces Tavern was faithful to the original, but the design was controversial in his time. There was no argument over removing the upper stories, which were known to have been added during the building&#39;s 19th-century commercial use, but adding the hipped roof was questioned. He used the Philipse Manor House in Yonkers, New York as a style guide and claimed to follow the roof line of the original, as found during construction, traced on the bricks of an adjoining building."</p><br>
<p>Architects Norval White and Elliot Willensky wrote in 2000 that the building was "a highly conjectural reconstruction – not a restoration – based on typical buildings of the period, parts of remaining walls, and a lot of guesswork." Daniela Salazar at the website Untapped New York agrees, stating that the "reconstruction was extremely speculative, and resulted in an almost entirely new construction".</p><br>
<p>The building was declared a landmark in 1965 by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and the surrounding city block bounded by Pearl Street, Water Street, Broad Street and Coenties Slip was included on November 14, 1978. The National Park Service added the surrounding city block to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on April 28, 1977, and the building was added to the NRHP on March 6, 2008.</p><br>
<h3>Bombing</h3><br>
<p>A bomb planted in the tavern exploded on January 24, 1975, killing four people and injuring more than 50 others. The Puerto Rican clandestine paramilitary organization "Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña" (Armed Forces of Puerto Rican National Liberation, or FALN), which had executed other bomb incidents in New York in the 1970s, claimed responsibility. No one had been prosecuted for the bombing as of 2022.</p><br>
<p>In a note police found in a phone booth nearby, the FALN wrote, "we … take full responsibility for the especially detornated (sic) bomb that exploded today at Fraunces Tavern, with reactionary corporate executives inside." The note claimed the bomb – roughly 10 pounds of dynamite that had been crammed into an attaché case and slipped into the tavern&#39;s entrance hallway – was retaliation for the "CIA ordered bomb" that killed three and injured 11 in a restaurant in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, two weeks earlier.</p><br>
<h2>Recent uses</h2><br>
<p>Since 1907, the Fraunces Tavern Museum on the second and third floors has helped to interpret the Fraunces Tavern and the collection of artifacts that it holds. The museum comprises nine galleries: John Ward Dunsmore collection of painted scenes of the American revolution; the Elizabeth and Stanley DeForest Scott gallery of portraits of George Washington; the Long Room, the site of General George Washingtons famous farewell dinner; the Clinton Room, a recreation of a federalist style dining room; the McEntee Gallery, depicting the history of the Sons of the Revolution; the Davis Education Center (Flag Gallery); and a number of other galleries and spaces used for periodic exhibitions. In 2014, for example, the museum exhibited 27 maps from the 1700 and 1800s, including a never before seen map from 1804 depicting the United States postal routes.</p><br>
<p>The building served as the location of the General Society, Sons of the Revolution (a heritage organization similar to and competing with the "Sons of the American Revolution") office until 2002, when the General Society moved to Independence, Missouri. The Fraunces Tavern Museum maintains several galleries of art and artifacts about the Revolution including the McEntee "Sons of the Revolution" Gallery that displays much of the history of the Society.</p><br>
<p>The Old Harrison County Courthouse is located in the center of Whetstone Square in Marshall, Texas and is one of the most famous and admired buildings in Texas. It is the signature landmark of Marshall and is frequently used to represent East Texas in travel literature.</p><br>
<p>The Old Courthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. From 1964 until 2000 the building housed the Harrison County Historical Museum. The building is noted as being the location of the first sit-ins in Texas.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The structure was designed by James Riely Gordon and supervised by a local architect C. G. Lancaster.</p><br>
<h3>The Dome</h3><br>
<p>The building&#39;s dome is its most distinctive feature and stands above a four-level rotunda. The rotunda is crowned by a coffered or false dome. Between the coffered dome and the outer dome are the workings of four-faced clock, that has been recently restored. Surrounding the coffered dome are six walls, which would resemble a hexagon if view from above, all of which support the outer dome. On the outside is a false portico aligned with each wall. Where the side of the hexagonal floor plan meet, a V-shaped brick pillar where two sides of the hexagon meet; thus each side of the V-shaped brick pillars span two porticos. In between the V-shaped brick pillars are three marble columns; one on each side of every window set into the walls supporting the outer dome. The windows are aligned to feed light through stained glass insets in the coffered dome hanging over the rotunda.</p><br>
<p>A cornice extends out over the false porticos and their pillar from the bottom of the outer dome. A balustrade, runs along the top of the cornice which like the porticos below it would appear as a hexagon if viewed from above. Eagle statues are perched wherever two sides of six-sided balustrade meet. The outer dome rise in from the cornice, which if viewed from above would appear as a circle inside a hexagon. The north, south, east, and west side of the outer dome are interrupted by clock faces, which maintain a vertical position even as the outer dome curves backwards. A false belfry, reminiscent of the lantern on top of the United States Capitol building, is located on top of the outer dome. On the top of the belfry is a 6 ft statue of Lady Justitia, which has the typical features of any Lady Justice: a blindfold, scales, and raised sword; as well as the rather atypical feature of a set of wings.</p><br>
<p>The Lyman House Memorial Museum, also known as the Lyman Museum and Lyman House, is a Hilo, Hawaii-based natural history museum founded in 1931 in the Lyman family mission house, originally built in 1838. The main collections were moved to an adjacent modern building in the 1960s, while the house is open for tours as the island&#39;s oldest surviving wood-framed building.</p><br>
<h2>The mission</h2><br>
<p>Reverend David Belden Lyman and his wife, Sarah Joiner Lyman, arrived in 1832, missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. It was one of the first houses on the island to be built in the style of their native New England, using native koa and ohia woods. Guests included Mark Twain and Isabella Bird. In 1854 - 1859 the new Haili Church was built across the street, replacing the thatched structures that served previously for the congregation.</p><br>
<p>The mission house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 24, 1978, as site 78001012. It is located at 276 Haili Street in Hilo, coordinates 19&deg;43&prime;18&Prime;N latitude, 155&deg;5&prime;28&Prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<h2>The museum</h2><br>
<p>Almost a century after the missionaries&#39; arrival, a museum was founded in 1931 by their descendants.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1960s, architect Vladimir Ossipoff designed and built a Museum building adjacent to the mission house. Upon its completion, the Museum moved there and expanded its exhibits. It has extensive displays on Hawaiian culture and is renowned for its collection of shells and minerals, including a specimen of orlymanite, named for Orlando Hammond Lyman (1903–1986), the museum&#39;s founder and great grandson of David and Sarah Lyman. The Museum has been an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution since 2002.</p><br>
<p>The Gaslamp Quarter is a historic neighborhood in downtown San Diego, California. It extends from Broadway to Harbor Drive and from 4th to 6th Avenue. The neighborhood is listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places as the Gaslamp Quarter Historic District. It includes over 90 historic buildings, most of which were constructed in the Victorian era; many are in use as restaurants, shops, entertainment venues, and nightclubs.</p><br>
<p>The Gaslamp Quarter is known for its nightlife. It is the site of various events and festivals, including Mardi Gras in the Gaslamp, Taste of Gaslamp, and ShamROCK, a St. Patrick&#39;s Day event. Petco Park, home of the San Diego Padres, is one block away in the East Village neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 1860s, the area was known as New Town, in contrast to Old Town, the original Spanish colonial settlement of San Diego. Intensive development began in 1867, when Alonzo Horton bought the land in hopes of creating a new city center closer to the bay, and chose 5th Avenue as its main street.</p><br>
<p>After a period of urban decay, the neighborhood underwent urban renewal in the 1980s and 1990s.</p><br>
<p>It was rebranded the "Gaslamp Quarter" during the redevelopment and preservation efforts that occurred during the 1980s, though the streets were generally lit by arc lights, not gaslamps.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>1850: William Heath Davis bought 160 acre in what would eventually become the Gaslamp Quarter. Despite heavy investment from Davis, little development happened in this period.</p><br>
<p>1867: Real estate developer Alonzo Horton arrived in San Diego and purchased 800 acre of land in New Town for $265. Major development began in the Gaslamp Quarter.</p><br>
<p>1880s to 1916: Known as the Stingaree, the area was a working class area, home to San Diego&#39;s first Chinatown, "Soapbox Row" and many saloons, gambling halls, and bordellos.</p><br>
<p>1912: Stingaree was the site of a free speech fight between socialists and city politicians which led to riots and the abduction by vigilantes of Emma Goldman&#39;s husband.</p><br>
<p>1916: the entire neighborhood of Stingaree was demolished and renamed by anti-vice campaigners.</p><br>
<p>1950s-1970s: The decaying Gaslamp Quarter became known as a "Sailor&#39;s Entertainment" district, with a high concentration of pornographic theaters, bookshops and massage parlors.</p><br>
<p>1970: Public interest in preserving buildings downtown started, especially in Gaslamp Quarter.</p><br>
<p>1976: The city adopted the Gaslamp Quarter Urban Design and Development Manual, aimed at preserving buildings in the area, and the redevelopment of Gaslamp Quarter as a national historic district.</p><br>
<p>1982: Gaslamp Quarter became the major focus of the redevelopments in downtown by the city of San Diego.</p><br>
<p>1992: Gaslamp Quarter Archway is installed and dedicated.</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Institution Building, more commonly known as the Smithsonian Castle or simply The Castle, is a building on the National Mall housing the Smithsonian Institution&#39;s administrative offices and information center. Built as the first Smithsonian museum building, it is constructed of Seneca red sandstone in the Norman Revival style . It was completed in 1855 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Castle was the first Smithsonian building, designed by architect James Renwick Jr., whose other works include St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and the Smithsonians Renwick Gallery, also in Washington D.C. The building committee held a nationwide design competition in 1846 and selected Renwicks design by a unanimous vote. Renwicks second design, which was Gothic Revival in style, was used in the design of Trinity Episcopal Church. A cardboard model of Renwick&#39;s winning design survives and is on display in the Castle. Renwick was assisted by Robert Mills,</p><br>
<p>Initially intended to be built in white marble, then in yellow sandstone, Scholarly evidence indicates it is likely that slaves were employed at Seneca in quarrying stone for the Castle, though no evidence has surfaced that slaves were involved in the actual Castle construction.</p><br>
<p>The building committee selected Gilbert Cameron as the general contractor, and construction began in 1847. The East Wing was completed in 1849 and occupied by Secretary Joseph Henry and his family. The West Wing was completed later the same year. A structural collapse in 1850 of partly completed work raised questions of workmanship and resulted in a change to fireproof construction. The Castles exterior was completed in 1852; Renwicks work was completed and he withdrew from further participation. Cameron continued the interior work, which he completed in 1855. Construction funds came from "accrued interest on the Smithson bequest."</p><br>
<p>Despite the upgraded fireproof construction, a fire in 1865 caused extensive damage to the upper floor of the building, destroying the correspondence of James Smithson, Henrys papers, two hundred oil paintings of American Indians by John Mix Stanley, the Regents Room and the lecture hall, and the contents of the public libraries of Alexandria, Virginia and Beaufort, South Carolina, confiscated by Union forces during the American Civil War. The ensuing renovation was undertaken by local Washington architect Adolf Cluss in 1865–67. Further fireproofing work ensued in 1883, also by Cluss, who by this time had designed the neighboring Arts and Industries Building. A third and fourth floor were added to the East Wing, and a third floor to the West Wing. Electric lighting was installed in 1895.</p><br>
<p>Around 1900, the wooden floor of the Great Hall was replaced with terrazzo and a Children&#39;s Museum was installed near the south entrance. A tunnel connected to the Arts and Industries Building. A general renovation took place in 1968–70 to install modern electrical systems, elevators and heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. The Enid A. Haupt Garden was dedicated in 1987, along with the Renwick Gate facing Independence Avenue, built from Seneca redstone retrieved from the demolished D.C. Jail.</p><br>
<p>In February 2023, the Castle closed for a planned five-year renovation. The project would include restoration of many aspects of the building, and removal of an upper floor of offices to restore the Grand Hall to its original appearance.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Renwick designed the Castle as the focal point of a picturesque landscape on the National Mall using elements from Georg Mollers Denkmäler der deutschen Baukunst. Renwick originally intended to detail the building with entirely American sculptural flora in the manner of Benjamin Henry Latrobes work at the United States Capitol, but the final work used conventional pattern-book designs.</p><br>
<p>The building is completed in the Gothic Revival style with Romanesque motifs. This style was chosen to evoke the Collegiate Gothic in England and the ideas of knowledge and wisdom. The façade is built with red sandstone from the Seneca quarry in Seneca, Maryland in contrast to the granite, marble and yellow sandstone from the other major buildings in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>The building comprises a central section, two extensions or ranges, and two wings. Four towers contain occupiable space, while five smaller towers are primarily decorative, although some contain stairs. As constructed, the central section contained the main entry and museum space (now the Great Hall), with a basement beneath and a large lecture room above. Two galleries on the second floor were used to display artifacts and art. This area is now the Visitors Information and Associates Reception area. The East Range contained laboratory space on the first floor and research space on the second. The East Wing contained storage space on the first floor and a suite of rooms on the second as an apartment for the Secretary of the Smithsonian. This space is currently used as administrative offices and archives. The West Range was one story and used as a reading room. The West Wing, known as the chapel, was used as a library. The West Wing and Range are now used as a quiet room for visitors.</p><br>
<p>On the exterior, the principal tower on the south side is 91 ft high and 37 ft square. On the north side there are two towers, the taller on 145 ft tall. A campanile at the northeast corner is 17 ft square and 117 ft tall.</p><br>
<p>The plan allowed for expansion at either end, a major reason for the informal medieval-inspired design, which would not suffer if asymmetrically developed.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Castle houses the administrative offices of the Smithsonian. The main Smithsonian visitor center is also located here, with interactive displays and maps. Computers electronically answer most common questions. A crypt just inside the north entrance houses the tomb of James Smithson.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Fort Pickens was part of the Third System of Fortifications, meant to enhance the old earthworks and simple, obsolete designs of the First and Second System of Fortifications. Fort Pickens was of a Pentagonal design, with broader western walls to provide a wide range of fire over the bay.</p><br>
<p>The fort had a counterscarp to the east side exclusively, to create a defensive moat in the event that a land invasion came from the west. The westernmost Bastions were also equipped with mine chambers, to be detonated in a last-ditch-effort to save the fort from invaders.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After the War of 1812, the United States decided to fortify all of its major ports. French engineer Simon Bernard was appointed to design Fort Pickens. Construction lasted from 1829 to 1834, with 21.5 million bricks being used to build it. Much of the construction was done by enslaved persons. Its construction was supervised by Colonel William H. Chase of the USA Army Corps of Engineers. During the American Civil War he sided with the Confederacy and was appointed to command Florida&#39;s troops.</p><br>
<p>Fort Pickens was the largest of a group of fortifications designed to defend Pensacola Harbor. It supplemented Fort Barrancas, Fort McRee, and the Navy Yard. Located at the western tip of Santa Rosa Island, just offshore from the mainland, Fort Pickens guarded the island and the entrance to the harbor.</p><br>
<h2>1858 fire</h2><br>
<p>On the night of 20 January 1858, the USCS Robert J. Walker was at Pensacola when a major fire broke out at Fort Pickens. The cutter&#39;s men and boats, joined by the hydrographic party of the United States Coast Survey steamer USCS Varina, rallied to fight the fire. The next day, the captain of the Robert J. Walker received a communication from Captain John Newton of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, who commanded the harbor of Pensacola, acknowledging the important service rendered by the Robert J. Walker.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>By the time of the American Civil War, Fort Pickens had not been occupied since shortly after the Mexican–American War. Despite its dilapidated condition, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer, in charge of United States forces at Fort Barrancas, decided Fort Pickens was the most defensible post in the area. He decided to abandon Fort Barrancas when, around midnight of January 8, 1861, his guards repelled a group of local civilians who intended to occupy the fort. Some historians claim that these were the first shots fired in the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>On January 10, 1861, the day Florida declared its secession from the Union, Slemmer destroyed over 20,000 pounds of gunpowder at Fort McRee. He then spiked the guns at Fort Barrancas, and moved his small force of 51 soldiers and 30 sailors to Fort Pickens. On January 15, 1861, and January 18, 1861, Slemmer refused surrender demands from Colonel William Henry Chase of the Florida militia. Chase had designed and constructed the fort as a captain in the USA Army Corps of Engineers. Slemmer defended the fort against threat of attack until he was reinforced and relieved on April 11, 1861, by Colonel Harvey Brown and the USS Brooklyn. The fort was further reinforced by Colonel William Wilson and elements of the 6th New York Infantry Regiment by late June 1861.</p><br>
<p>The Confederates attacked the Fort on October 9, 1861, in the Battle of Santa Rosa Island, with a force of a thousand men. The attack came from the east, after forces landed four miles away. The attack was repelled by artillery and gunfire, and the Confederates retreated with 90 casualties.</p><br>
<h3>Bombardments</h3><br>
<p>After tensions in Pensacola grew, and the Confederates secured posts at Fort McRee and Fort Barrancas, the Federal forces decided to shell the confederate forts. On November 22, two Union warships, the Niagara and the Richmond, sailed into the bay, and the bombardment began. The attack lasted two days, and the results were in the Union&#39;s favor. Fort McRee was nearly destroyed, and the town of Warrington and the Navy Yard were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>A second bombardment, meant to finish off the Confederates, was initiated on New Year&#39;s Day 1862. Fort McRee was almost destroyed, and any buildings near Fort Barrancas were burned.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate surrender</h3><br>
<p>Running low on supplies, and with dwindling morale, the Confederates began to doubt their chances of success in the Battle of Pensacola. Eventually, the Battle of Mobile Bay drew the last of the southern forces westward to Alabama to defend against Admiral Farragut&#39;s invasion forces. On May 10, 1862, the last Confederates at Pensacola surrendered to Fort Pickens.</p><br>
<p>Despite repeated Confederate threats, Fort Pickens was one of only four Southern forts to remain in Union hands throughout the war, the others being Fort Taylor at Key West, Florida, Fort Jefferson at Garden Key, Florida in the Dry Tortugas, and Fort Monroe in Virginia.</p><br>
<h2>Indian wars</h2><br>
<p>Captives from Indian Wars in the West were transported to the East Coast to be held as prisoners. From October 1886 to May 1887, Geronimo, a noted Apache war chief, was imprisoned in Fort Pickens, along with several of his warriors. Their families were held at Fort Marion in St. Augustine.</p><br>
<h2>Endicott era</h2><br>
<p>During the late 1890s and early 20th century, the Army had new gun batteries constructed at Fort Pickens. These batteries were part of a program initiated by the Endicott Board, a group headed by a mid-1880s Secretary of War, William C. Endicott. Instead of many guns concentrated in a traditional thick-walled masonry structure, the Endicott batteries are spread out over a wide area, concealed behind concrete parapets flush with the surrounding terrain. The use of the accurate, long-range weapons eliminated the need for the concentration of guns that was common in the Third System fortifications. Battery Pensacola was constructed within the walls of Fort Pickens, while other similar concrete batteries were constructed to the east and west as separate facilities. The ruins of these later facilities are also included in the Gulf Islands National Seashore complex. As at many posts, obsolete weapons were repurposed during World War I; Battery Cooper&#39;s 6-inch M1905 guns on disappearing carriages were removed in 1917, but a piece located at West Point was moved to Battery Cooper in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Little consideration was given to the preservation of the old fort during the construction of Endicott Batteries. The parapet on The south wall of the fort was demolished, along with the officers quarters beneath. The barbette on the southeast wall was also removed, along with the casemate arches of the southernmost bastion. These changes were made to allow the firing arc of Battery Pensacolas 12-inch Guns to clear with having to raise the battery.</p><br>
<p>On June 20, 1899, a fire in Fort Pickens Bastion D reached the bastions magazine, which contained 8,000 lb of powder. The resulting explosion killed one soldier and obliterated Bastion D. The force of the explosion was so great that bricks from Bastion D&#39;s walls landed across the bay at Fort Barrancas, more than 1.5 miles (2.4 km) away. The damage was relatively confined to Bastion D, but the foundations were torn away along with sections of the walls to allow for easier access to the batteries. This proved easier than trying to fit mechanical equipment for Battery Pensacola through the Sally Port.</p><br>
<h2>Post WW I</h2><br>
<h3>GPF Battery</h3><br>
<p>As with many other forts, Panama mounts were planned for in the interwar era, beginning in 1937. Four 155mm GPF guns were placed around Battery Cooper, two forward, and one to each side, in 1942. The guns used concrete rings for positioning and aiming, which still remain today. The guns, however, have been long since removed. The 155 battery used Battery Cooper&#39;s magazines, communications, and other support facilities.</p><br>
<h3>Battery Langdon</h3><br>
<p>Battery Langdon was constructed in 1923, with 12-inch guns meant to complement those already in place at Battery Pensacola. The guns were originally exposed to fire, but the ammunition and command center was stored inside of a reinforced embankment between the guns. The guns were later casemated in 1943.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<p>Fort Pickens was of interest in World War II to the USA Navy, and it was decided that the defenses of the fort needed to be strengthened. A specific threat was German U-Boats, which were already operating in the Gulf of Mexico.</p><br>
<h3>Battery 234</h3><br>
<p>One addition to Fort Pickens&#39;s defense was Battery 234, which was meant to function alongside Battery 233 across the bay on Perdido Key. Many of these batteries were built across the nation, all with the same design, to replace the role of light artillery formerly held by the 3-Inch M1903 guns. Both batteries were designed to equip two 6-Inch M1905 guns in cast-steel casemates. The command center is buried underneath an artificial hill to protect from air attacks. The guns were never fitted during the war, but were donated in 1976 by the Smithsonian and are present today.</p><br>
<h3>Battery Langdon (1943)</h3><br>
<p>To protect from the threat of German dive bombers, Battery Langdon was casemated in 1943. The 12-inch barbette guns that were in place were kept, but 17 feet of concrete was added to create a bomb proof bunker. The bunker was then covered in sand and dirt to create an artificial hill around the battery, for additional protection.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby fortifications</h2><br>
<p>Fort McRee was built on Perdido Key across Pensacola Pass from Fort Pickens. Abandoned by Union forces and taken over by Florida and Alabama militia in January 1861, it was badly damaged by Union bombardment during the American Civil War later that year. Abandoned by Confederate forces, Fort McRee remained in ruins for the next three decades. Although improved in the late 19th century during the run-up to the Spanish–American War, the fort was struck by a hurricane on September 26–27, 1906 that destroyed most of the newer structures erected since 1898. After the hurricane, only a minimal caretaker staff was based there to ensure security of the site. Due to its site being accessible only by foot or boat, Fort McRee was left to the elements. Storms and erosion have battered the site; today, nothing more than a few scattered foundations remain.</p><br>
<p>Fort Barrancas, which was built around previously constructed 17th- and 18th-century Spanish forts, as well as Fort Barrancas&#39; associated Advanced Redoubt approximately a mile (1.6 km) to the northwest of Fort Barrancas, are located across Pensacola Bay on the grounds of what is now Naval Air Station Pensacola. When Union forces abandoned Fort McRee in 1861, they also abandoned Fort Barrancas, pulling back to Fort Pickens. This fort was also occupied by Florida and Alabama militia forces, who were subsequently integrated into the Confederate forces. In May 1862, after hearing that the Union Army had taken New Orleans, Confederate troops abandoned Pensacola and Fort Barrancas. The fort reverted to Union control.</p><br>
<p>Camp 4 is a tent-only campground in Yosemite National Park in the United States. It became notable after World War II as "a birthplace of rock climbing’s modern age." It is located at an elevation of 4000 ft  on the north side of the Yosemite Valley, close to base of granite cliffs near Yosemite Falls.</p><br>
<p>Nearby boulders have long been used for bouldering, including the Columbia Boulder, which is known for the boulder problem called the Midnight Lightning, first done by Ron Kauk in 1978. It is easily recognizable by a painting of a white thunderbolt next to it.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Physically unimpressive, Camp 4 nevertheless "served as a seedbed for the exchange of ideas, training and the development of new equipment that vastly improved the speed and safety of climbing" (LA Times) during the time from after World War II until around 1970. Dozens of the most famous climbers in the world congregated at Camp 4 for years, learning from each other and trying out new ideas on Yosemite walls such as Half Dome and El Capitan. Yvon Chouinard (today known as founder of the outdoor clothing retailer Patagonia, Inc.) prototyped new kinds of climbing equipment in Camp 4 using an old anvil, and sold them in the nearby parking lot.</p><br>
<p>From the 1970s on, a new group of climbers led by Jim Bridwell and others based at Camp 4 (known as the "Stone Masters" from 1973 to 80) introduced a more athletic approach to climbing and popularized free climbing.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, Camp 4 was the site of ongoing friction between climbers and the National Park Service. The conflict came to a head in 1997, when flooding in Yosemite Valley destroyed many employee housing units and the Park Service proposed to build a three-story dormitory complex near Camp 4. With the support of other activists, rock climber and climbing equipment manufacturer Tom Frost initiated a lawsuit against the Park Service, arguing that the buildings would disturb the camps natural setting. The suit was joined by the American Alpine Club. As part of their attempt to stop the construction project, Frost and his attorney Dick Duane also filed an application to have Camp 4 listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The park officials ultimately agreed to stop the development plans and to support the NRHP application, which was granted in 2003, based on the camps "significant association with the growth and development of rock climbing in the Yosemite Valley during the golden years of pioneer mountaineering".</p><br>
<p>From 1971 to 1999, Camp 4 was officially known as Sunnyside Walk-in Campground, but has been since renamed Camp 4 in recognition of its historic status. During this era, however, the campsite was known colloquially to climbers as Camp 4. Throughout the period, the campground was the seasonal residence of many of Yosemite Valley&#39;s most prominent climbers.</p><br>
<p>A 2012 rockfall hazard report concluded that several campsites on the northern side of Camp 4 needed to be relocated to achieve adequate safety for climbers.</p><br>
<p>The 2014 documentary Valley Uprising features veterans of Camp 4 including Warren Harding (dubbed "the original bad boy of Camp 4" for his risk-taking, rebellious attitude, and alcohol consumption), and Beverly Johnson (who in 1973 was part of the first all-female ascent of El Capitan).</p><br>
<h2>Reservations and availability</h2><br>
<p>Camp 4 does not offer traditional reservations at any time during the year, and the process for attaining a camping site differs depending on the season.</p><br>
<p>Mid-April through October</p><br>
<p>From April 13 through October 27, 2024, campsites will be available only by reservation via Recreation.gov one week in advance of your arrival date. Up to 6 people can be registered for a site per each reservation transaction. The camping fee is $10 per person per night.</p><br>
<p>November to mid-April</p><br>
<p>Camp 4 operates on a first-come, first-served basis, usually until sometime in April. The campground may fill early in the morning every day in spring and fall if weather is nice. The camping fee is $10 per night. In spring and fall, a line of those wishing to camp here typically forms at the campground kiosk early in the morning.</p><br>
<p>A total of 36 sites are available daily, each accommodating a maximum of six people (i.e., 216 spots total) at a cost of US$10 per person per night. Notably, the Park Service has imposed a 30-night camping limit within Yosemite National Park per calendar year; however, from 1 May to 15 September, the camping limit in Yosemite is 14 nights, with only seven of those nights allowed in Yosemite Valley or Wawona. Because of the popularity of the camp, the relatively small number of camp sites, and the lack of reservation availability, it can be difficult to be able to camp at this campground, except for the winter season, which is less busy.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaii State Library is a historic building in Honolulu, Hawaii, United States, that serves as the seat of the Hawaii State Public Library System, the only statewide library system and one of the largest in the United States. The Hawaii State Library building is located in downtown Honolulu, adjacent to Iolani Palace and the Hawaii State Capitol. Originally funded by Andrew Carnegie, the building was designed by architect Henry D. Whitfield. Groundbreaking took place in 1911 and construction was completed in 1913. In 1978, the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places, as a contributing property within the Hawaii Capital Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The building holds over 525,000 cataloged books. The entire Hawaii State Public Library System has a collection of over 3 million books. Nearby is the Hawaii State Archives which holds book collections of historical significance to Hawaii. The Edna Allyn Childrens Room houses murals by artist Juliette May Fraser depicting Hawaiian legends while the garden courtyard features a mosaic of ocean currents by Hiroki Morinoue. Barbara Hepworths cast bronze sculptures, named Parent I and Young Girl, greet visitors at the lawn in front of the building.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before the Hawaii State Library was constructed, library facilities were provided by the Honolulu Library and Reading Room Association, founded in 1879 by the Kingdom of Hawaii. Prior to this, the site was the location of Hāliʻimaile, the residence of Boki and Liliha and later, Victoria Kamāmalu and her father and brothers before they ascended Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V. Hawaii&#39;s royalty (King Kalakaua, Queen Kapiolani, Queen Emma, and Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop) gave both financial support and their personal book collections to the association. King Kalakaua also provided tax exemptions and a land grant for a permanent site in downtown Honolulu.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaii State Library was funded by a grant from Andrew Carnegie. The Library met the government-related requirements for the grant with the cooperation of Walter F. Frear. Edna Allyn was the head librarian when it opened in 1913.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, the County Library Law established separate libraries on the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii, under minimal supervision by the Library of Hawaii, which restricted its services to Oahu. Even so, the latter quickly outgrew its quarters. In 1927, the Territorial legislature approved funding to expand and renovate the building. Construction was completed in 1930. Architect C.W. Dickey tripled its size by new wings to create an open-air courtyard in the center.</p><br>
<p>After statehood in 1959, the Hawaii State Legislature created the Hawaii State Public Library System, the only statewide system in the United States, with the Hawaii State Library building as its flagship branch. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the library continued to outgrow its facility. In 1990, it funded a second major renovation and expansion, which was completed in 1992. The renovations addressed air-conditioning, roofing, asbestos removal, plumbing, better access for the handicapped, and landscaping, while the expansion added a large wing to the rear of the building that blended well with the older wings.</p><br>
<h2>Library development in Hawaii</h2><br>
<p>The library system of Hawaii State Library, which was established in June 1965, called for a new concept of organization that had to be created by the state librarian. This system would provide complete service to all aspects of society. Ideas were sourced from other established libraries and organizations, then integrated to create best practices for the library system. and reports directly to the Superintendent of Education. Other government agencies that the state librarian reports to are the seven appointed School Advisory Councils, the four Library Advisory Commissions, and others that are engaged in education. The state librarian is responsible for the operation, planning, programming, and budgeting of all public libraries within the State; however, there are no local funds in Hawaii, and as such, the governor and legislature approve the funding and budget of the State Library.</p><br>
<p>Aliʻiōlani Hale is a building located in downtown Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, currently used as the home of the Hawaiʻi State Supreme Court. It is the former seat of government of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi and the Republic of Hawaiʻi.</p><br>
<p>Located in the building&#39;s courtyard is the famed gold-leaf statue of Kamehameha the Great.</p><br>
<h2>Design and history</h2><br>
<p>The Aliʻiōlani Hale was designed by Australian Thomas Rowe in an Italian Renaissance Revival as the royal palace for King Kamehameha V. In the Hawaiian language, Aliʻiōlani Hale means "House of Heavenly Kings". The name "Aliʻiōlani" was also one of the given names of Kamehameha V.</p><br>
<p>Although the building was designed to be a palace, Kamehameha V realized that the Hawaiian government desperately needed a government building. At that time, the several buildings in Honolulu used by the government were very small and cramped, clearly inadequate for the growing Hawaiian government. Thus, when Kamehameha V ordered construction of Aliʻiōlani Hale, he commissioned it as a government office building instead of a palace.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha V laid the cornerstone for the building on February 19, 1872. He died before the building was completed, and it was dedicated in 1874 by one of his successors, King David Kalākaua. At the time, Hawaiian media criticized the building&#39;s extravagant design, suggesting that the building be converted into a palace as originally designed.</p><br>
<p>Until 1893, the building held most of the executive departments of the Hawaiian government as well as the Hawaiian legislature and courts.</p><br>
<h2>Overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy</h2><br>
<p>It was from Aliʻiōlani Hale in 1893 that the Committee of Safety, under the leadership of Lorrin A. Thurston, deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani by public proclamation.</p><br>
<p>After the establishment of the Hawaiian provisional government in 1893 and the Republic of Hawaiʻi in 1894, some of the offices in Aliʻiōlani Hale were moved to ʻIolani Palace, including the Hawaiian legislature. As a result, Aliʻiolani Hale became primarily a judicial building.</p><br>
<h2>Aliʻiōlani Hale since 1900</h2><br>
<p>The growing size of Hawaiʻis government continued to be a problem for the building, especially after Hawaiʻi became a United States territory in 1900. In 1911, the building was extensively renovated to help solve these space problems. The entire interior of the building was gutted and rebuilt, giving the buildings interior a completely new floorplan. Since the building was originally designed to be a palace, its floorplan was not adequate for its later usage as a judicial building. The new layout of the building fixed this problem.</p><br>
<p>The size of the territorial government continued to grow. In the 1940s, a new wing was added to the building to help alleviate the growing problem of overcrowding. The architects who designed the new wing tried to blend it in with the original building that dated back to the 1870s.</p><br>
<p>Over the next many decades, most of the state judiciary functions moved out of Aliʻiōlani Hale to various other buildings around Honolulu (including the state district, family, and circuit courts). Today, the building houses the Hawaiʻi State Supreme Court and is the administrative center of the Hawaiʻi State Judiciary. It also houses the Judiciary History Center, a museum featuring a multimedia presentation of Hawaiʻis judiciary, a restored historic courtroom, and other exhibits dealing with Hawaiʻis judicial history. The building also houses Hawaiʻi&#39;s largest law library.</p><br>
<p>In December 2005, a capsule buried by Kamehameha V when he laid the cornerstone was located, at the direction of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, by Professor Larry Connors of the University of Denver using ground penetrating radar. The capsule contained photos of royal families and the constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Hawaiian postage stamps, Hawaiian and foreign coinage, newspapers, a calendar and books. The capsule was located to protect it during future renovations, and not retrieved due to concerns of damaging the structure of the building itself.</p><br>
<p>Copper thieves stripped several copper downspouts from the building in 2006.</p><br>
<p>In the 2010 version of CBS&#39; Hawaii Five-0 TV series, Aliʻiōlani Hale is depicted as the Iolani Palace; headquarters for the Five-0 task force with exterior shots of the building being used frequently throughout the series.</p><br>
<p>Aliʻiōlani Hale is one of many buildings in downtown Honolulu listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Within walking distance are the Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace, Hawaiʻi State Capitol, Hawaiʻi State Library, Honolulu Hale, ʻIolani Palace, Kawaiahaʻo Church, Territorial Building, and Washington Place.</p><br>
<h2>King Kamehameha V Judiciary History Center</h2><br>
<p>The King Kamehameha V Judiciary History Center, located in Aliʻiōlani Hale, focuses on Hawaii&#39;s legal history and landmark court cases. Admission is free and the public can tour the exhibits from Monday through Friday from 8am to 4pm. Group tours are offered by reservation.</p><br>
<p>Woodmont is a mansion and hilltop estate of 72 acre in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1998 for its well-preserved Chateau-style architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Alan Wood, Jr.</h2><br>
<p>Woodmont was designed in 1891 by Quaker architect William Lightfoot Price in the French Gothic style for Alan Wood, Jr., a steel magnate and former USA Congressman. Overlooking the Schuylkill River, the industrial town of Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, and the Alan Wood Iron & Steel Company plant, the chateauesque mansion was completed in 1894 at a cost of one million dollars ($37.8 million in 2023).</p><br>
<p>The site features views of 15 to 20 miles. The Schuylkill Expressway passes by the estate, hundreds of feet below.</p><br>
<p>The model for Woodmont was the George W. Vanderbilt mansion, Biltmore, in Asheville, North Carolina. Price had designed a nearby hotel for Vanderbilt, the Kenilworth Inn (1890–91), and was intimately familiar with the then-under-construction chateau.</p><br>
<p>Woodmont includes tennis courts, a swimming pool, stables, several outbuildings, greenhouses, a stream, and walking paths. The original property spanned more than 400 acre, including a working farm with two dairy barns (one survives).</p><br>
<p>Alan Wood, Jr. occupied the estate for less than a decade. A year before his 1902 death, he sold it to his nephew, Richard G. Wood, who lived there for 28 years. Richard began subdividing the land in 1929, including the sale of 200 acre to the Philadelphia Country Club.</p><br>
<p>A description from 1897:</p><br>
<p>WOODMONT.--Alan Wood, Jr., owns the estate with the above name. The section around the house, including the gardens, is styled Woodmont Park. The house was constructed between 1891 and 1894. William L. Price, of Philadelphia, being the architect. The style is that of a French Gothic chateau. Stone from the vicinity furnished most of the walls, the cellar being cut out of the rock. Lieperville stone, with limestone trimmings, were used in facing, and the stable is from the stone quarried from the cellar. The site is 475 feet above tidewater, overlooking the Valley of the Schuylkill for fifteen or twenty miles around. The highest site in Montgomery County is on the Woodmont Farm, being twenty-five feet higher than the mansion site. There are neat lodge-houses. Woodmont Farm contains about 100 acres, and Bellevue and Highland Farms, owned by Mr. Wood, adjoining, also contain about a hundred acres each. The Woodmont Farm had been owned by the Newberry family for a century before Mr. Wood purchased it in 1880. The Bellevue and Highland Farms were a part of the John Y. Crawford estate, and were bought from the estate by Mr. Wood in 1885. Highland Farm was well-named in old time from its elevated position. The farms are well-kept, and in the best condition. On Highland Farm was a stone mansion house, which Mr. Wood beautifully remodeled, and it has been rented to citizens yearly, furnished. Richard G. Wood, of Pittsburg, is dwelling there this summer. There is also a fine farm-house. The stone barn on Bellevue Farm is believed to be the finest one in Montgomery County, accommodating fifty cows and twenty-five horses; and hospital stalls are added for sick cows and horses for isolation.</p><br>
<h2>Father Divine</h2><br>
<p>The estate is today the center of the International Peace Mission movement. Father Divine, a self-proclaimed God and leader of the movement, was given the estate by a follower, John Devoute, in 1953. His followers renovated the mansion and placed an American flag prominently in front reflecting Father Divine&#39;s patriotism. They also added a garden like those on previous Peace Mission properties. An open house was held on September 10–12, 1953.</p><br>
<p>Followers visited Father Divine here until his death in 1965. All furnishings in Divine&#39;s rooms, including an antiquated television set, have been left as they were at his death. The estate is now a shrine to his life and a meeting place for his few remaining followers.</p><br>
<h2>Visiting</h2><br>
<p>Woodmont is open to the public on Sunday afternoons, from April to October. The guided tours are free of charge.</p><br>
<p>Fortín de San Gerónimo de Boquerón is a small fort located at the mouth of the Condado Lagoon, across from the historic sector of Miramar in San Juan, Puerto Rico.</p><br>
<p>It was built during the 18th century to replace a smaller battery (called El Boquerón) that stood at the easternmost end of the San Juan islet. The original Boquerón battery was used by the Spanish to defend the city of San Juan from attacks by Sir Francis Drake in 1595 and George Clifford, the third Earl of Cumberland in 1598, who managed to destroy it during his attack. San Gerónimo became part of San Juan&#39;s first line of defense, along with the Fortín San Antonio and Escambrón Fort, while the last line of defense was the formidable Castillo San Cristóbal, which guarded the city entrance proper and also defended from land attacks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The San Gerónimo and San Antonio forts were pivotal in repelling the invasion by the forces of British Admiral Henry Harvey and Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1797. On April 17, 1797, their combined forces (64 to 68 ships and 7,000 to 13,000 men) landed in Cangrejos, approximately three miles west of San Juan. San Juans military forces, which included, among others, the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico (Resident Regiment of Puerto Rico) and the Militias Disciplinadas (Trained Militias) were outnumbered by the invaders by a ratio of almost three to one. Admiral Harvey blockaded the San Juan Harbor while Abercromby established his operations headquarters in San Mateo parish overseeing all of San Juan and the Martín Peña Bridge. Abercrombys strategy was to take the Martín Peña bridge in order to block Spanish reinforcements from the south and bombard San Gerónimo and San Antonio from Miramar to gain access to and cross the San Antonio Bridge into the San Juan islet. British forces included the Royal Marines, made famous by their later defeat of Napoleon&#39;s troops in Egypt. Then-Governor of Puerto Rico Field Marshal Don Ramón de Castro y Gutiérrez, a brilliant strategist, prevented the British from advancing and frustrated their conquest of San Juan.</p><br>
<p>The San Gerónimo and San Antonio sustained heavy damage from the constant bombardment during the two-week siege on the city. Chronicles describe the defenders shooting their muskets and cannons from behind sandbags because of the devastation their forts sustained. Both San Gerónimo and San Antonio were eventually rebuilt and expanded.</p><br>
<p>San Gerónimo is located adjacent to the grounds of the Caribe Hilton Hotel. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 11, 1983. Unlike similar forts near Old San Juan, it is not part of San Juan National Historic Site. San Gerónimo is owned by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture but is managed by the Hilton. Thanks to the work of volunteers, the fort is again open to the public and contains an exhibit of the history of San Juan. The "Polvorín de San Gerónimo", or gunpowder house, that was built in 1769 and supplied the fort with gunpowder, is now part of the Luis Muñoz Rivera Park nearby.</p><br>
<p>As recent as the year 2006, attempts were being made by the Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña and the USA Army Corps of Engineers to build a breakwater to stop any further deterioration from irreparably damaging the centuries-old fort. Senate Vice President Orlando Parga has led efforts to modify some of the construction projects that would encroach on the fort or would hamper the Corps of Engineers&#39; preservation and reconstruction efforts.</p><br>
<p>In July 2007, the Fort was the scene of protests against the construction of a tourist project called Paseo Caribe that would block access to the fortification. Protesters argued that the public should have free access to it. The protest lasted about a week during which the protesters halted the construction projects by climbing onto the cranes.</p><br>
<p>The Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 directed the USA Secretary of the Interior to conduct a study to determine the suitability of including San Gerónimo as part of San Juan National Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>After two decades closed to the public, in 2018 the Asociación Amigos del Fortín de San Jerónimo was created, a non-profit association that is responsible for the preservation and future reopening for the charity of the Puerto Rican people and tourists.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, the USA House of Representatives passed a bill that would make the Fort an affiliated area of the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>Caribe-Hilton-Fort-San-Jerónimo.jpg</p><br>
<p>Condado Puerto Rico pano.jpgPanoramic view</p><br>
<p>Fortín de San Gerónimo del Boquerón.jpgAerial view</p><br>
<p>Fortín de San Gerónimo from Ashford Ave Bridge.JPGFortín de San Gerónimo from Ashford Ave Bridge</p><br>
<p>San Geronimo, Puerta De Terra.jpg</p><br>
<p>Bosselman---11407wc.jpgSan Gerónimo, circa 1911</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal was a towpath canal in central New York in the United States which linked the Susquehanna River to the Erie Canal. Built and operated in the mid-19th century, it was 97 miles long and for much of its course followed the Chenango River, along New York State Route 12 from Binghamton on the south end to Utica on the north. It operated from 1834 to 1878 and provided a significant link in the water transportation system of the northeastern USA until supplanted by the region&#39;s developing railroad network.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The canal was first proposed in the New York Legislature in 1824 during the construction of the Erie Canal, prompted by lobbying from local leaders in the Chenango Valley. It was authorized by the legislature in 1833 and completed in October 1836 at a total cost of $2,500,000—approximately twice the original appropriation. In 1833 a grand ball was held in Oxford, New York, which feted the canal&#39;s approval. The great American civil engineer John B. Jervis was appointed Chief Engineer of the project and helped in its design. This was an era of extensive canal building in the United States, following the English model, in order to provide a major transportation network for the eastern United States.</p><br>
<p>The excavation began in 1834 and was largely done by Irish and Scottish immigrant laborers, digging by hand, using pick and shovel, chipping through rock and wading through marsh. They were paid $11 per month, which was three times a common laborer&#39;s wages at the time. Skilled workers came from the completed Erie Canal project and brought new inventions, such as an ingenious stump-puller, which used oxen or mules for animal power. Work camps for the laborers were established along the route and as many as 500 men stayed in each camp. The canal opened in October, 1836, and was billed as the "best-built canal in the state".</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal was 42 feet wide at the top and 26 feet wide at the bottom and averaged 4 feet deep. It had 116 locks, 11 lock houses, 12 dams, 19 aqueducts, 52 culverts, 56 road bridges, 106 farm bridges, 53 feeder bridges, and 21 waste weirs. The Chenango was unique in that it was the first reservoir-fed canal in the USA In this design, reservoirs were created and feeder canals were dug to bring water to the summit level of the canal. This had been done previously in Europe, but had not been tried in the US. This project had to succeed by getting almost 23 miles of waterway up an incline with a 706 elevation, to the summit level in Bouckville, and back down a descent of 303 to the Susquehanna river in Binghamton. At a time when there was only one engineering school in the country (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ((1824)), and hydrology was not yet a scientific discipline, Jervis and his team were able to design a complex waterway that was considered the best of its day.</p><br>
<h2>System</h2><br>
<p>The main artery Erie Canal was built between 1817 and 1825 and provided the key link in a water highway to what would become the Midwestern United States, connecting to the Great Lakes at Buffalo. It connected the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and then to the port of New York City. The Erie made use of the favorable conditions of New York&#39;s unique topography which provided that area with the only break in the Appalachian range—allowing for east-west navigation from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes. The canal system gave New York State a competitive advantage, helped New York City develop as an international trade center, and allowed Buffalo to grow from just 2,000 settlers in 1820 to over 18,000 people by 1840. The port of New York became essentially the Atlantic home port for all of the Great Lakes states. It was because of this vital and critical connection that New York State became known as the Empire State.</p><br>
<p>The Erie Canal represented the first major water-works project in the United States. It proved the practicality of large-scale water diversions without disrupting the local environment. The canal connected the waters of Lake Erie to the tidewater of New York harbor in a multi-level route that followed the local terrain and was fed by local water sources. All of the New York branch canals would follow this model. With the Erie, as with all of the branch canals, water flow was required for several purposes: filling the canal at the beginning of each spring season; water for lockage, i.e., water loss from higher to lower levels; water loss by seepage through the berm and towpath banks and water diverted for industrial power usage. Consequently, flooding and droughts were perennial problems for all of the New York canals.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal operated from 1834 to 1878, from April to November each year. The opening of the canal cut the shipping time from Binghamton to Albany from nine days to four days, and reduced the cost of shipping goods dramatically. It was intended to connect Binghamton and surrounding communities, by water route, to the port of New York City and to the Great Lakes States.</p><br>
<p>The northern terminus of the Chenango Canal was in Utica at an entry lock near present-day N. Genesee Street and the Erie Canal; the southern terminus was in Binghamton at a turning basin near present-day State and Susquehanna Streets. State Street in Binghamton was built on the path of the canal in 1872. The village of Port Dickinson and the hamlets of Port Crane and Pecksport owe their origins and names to being stops on the route. With the coming of the Chenango Canal, Port Crane, being located on the line of this waterway, developed rapidly, with stores, hotels, boat yards and repair and dry docks being built in that village. For some time beginning in 1837, the canal afforded shipping facilities to these and other such isolated areas, which were gradually improved. Between 1840 and 1865, for example, the village of Port Crane reached the height of its prosperity. Overall, the construction of the canal led to a widespread manufacturing and building boom in the Chenango Valley.</p><br>
<p>A western extension, commonly known as the Extension Canal, was begun in 1840. The Extension continued west along the south side of the Susquehanna River, as far as Vestal. Officially named the Chenango Canal Extension, it was for the purpose of "making connection with the Pennsylvania canal system, and thus to complete a route to the vast coal fields in that state, the New York Legislature, on April 18, 1838, passed an act (chapter 292) directing the canal commissioners to cause a survey to be made from the termination of the Chenango canal at Binghamton, along the valley of the Susquehanna, to the State line near Tioga Point, at the termination of the North Branch canal of Pennsylvania, and to cause an estimate of the cost of this continuation to be made." Also it would connect with western New York through the Junction and Chemung canals, Seneca lake, and the Cayuga and Seneca and the Erie canals.</p><br>
<p>In the original plan, the Chenango Canal was supposed to connect the Erie Canal with the Pennsylvania Canal. But the connecting canals in the southern part of the state and in northern Pennsylvania were never fully completed nor totally operational. One section would fall into disrepair before the rest of the line was completed. Also, this canal</p><br>
<p>was begun at the close of the canal era, and the era ended before the line could be completed.</p><br>
<p>The extension was not the only segment with operational problems. The Chenango Canal had its problems, as well. Most significantly, the Chenango Co. had difficulty performing its regular maintenance due to the often prohibitively high repair costs. As with most canal lines in the East, they began operation carrying too much debt. If the company did not show a wide enough margin from the user fees during the season, they would end the year at a deficit. Also, as with many similar canals, the Chenangos greatest error was that they initially installed a system using wooden locks. With New Yorks frigid winters and freeze-thaw cycles, the wood never held up for very long. As soon as one section had been repaired, another would give out, and it usually took more time and money than was available before they were all in operation. The original structures were incrementally all rebuilt. Ultimately and at great cost, the process culminated in the construction of stone locks.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>The competition kept the freight rates low. Before the canal was built, it took between 9 and 13 days to ship goods by wagon from Binghamton to Albany, for a cost of $1.25 per 100 pounds. A canal boat made the trip in less than four days and cost $.25 per 100 pounds. Records also show an example of a fare on a packet line that ran between Norwich and Binghamton. The fare was $1.50 per person, departing at 6 am, arriving sometime between 6 and 8 pm.</p><br>
<p>Many classes of boats frequented the Chenango Canal and included packet boats, scows, lakers and bullheadsthe name for the freight barges, which were the most common boats seen. The bullhead was so named because of its blunt and rounded bow. They were about 14 feet wide and 75 feet long and were sometimes loaded so heavily that they would periodically drag along the bottom of the canal. The packet boats and barges were drawn at an average speed of four miles an hour by horse or mule teams on the towpath. The passenger boats were usually pulled by horses, which were changed every ten miles. The freight barges were pulled by mules, which were changed every four to six hours. Each barge had two cabins: one at the bow to stable the animals, usually horses or mules, that pulled the boat, and one at the stern which served as a living quarters for the captain and crew, and sometimes a whole family. The packet boats bore names like The Madison of Solsville, with Captain Bishop, or Fair Play, with Captain Van Slyck, and were manned by a minimum crew of three. Each boat needed a driver walking on the towpath controlling the animals, a bowsman controlling the movement and direction of the bow and a steersman on the aft deck. The passengers were seated in chairs on the top deck. When the boat would near a town, the crewmen shouted: "Low bridge!" and everyone would retreat to the lower deck to avoid being swept overboard by a bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>The first packet boat, The Dove of Solsville, arrived in Binghamton from Utica May 6, 1837, officially opening the canal, and was quickly followed by new development along the canals route. The area benefited from the arrival of new settlers, new and needed merchandise and the provision of a means of shipping finished goods and product in and out of the local areas. Mills and factories sprang up along the southern end of the canal, while stores and hotels arose all along the retail corridor. Numerous and varied supporting businesses also flourished, including taverns, inns and boat yards- for building and repair. Farmers now had an efficient, affordable and dependable means of transportation enabling them to sell their perishable milk production to butter and cheese factories; the factories could readily ship their product to market. Apple cider and cider vinegar were shipped from Motts, at what is now the Bouckville Mill. Lumber mills had affordable availability of their resources and access to their markets. In a few instances, however, mills were forced to cease operation. Such was the case with Madison&#39;s Solsville Mills, whose water supply from Oriskany Creek was diverted away to be used for the supply of the canal.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango also allowed for efficient, comfortable and relatively fast passenger transportation. New residents arrived from Utica, most having come in through New Yorks port. The canals construction laborers themselves were largely immigrants who stayed and settled in the area after the construction was completed. In 1861, the canal transported 1000 soldiers of the 114th Regiment from Norwich to Utica, in a flotilla of 10 packet boats. This was the first leg of their journey southward to serve in the Union Army during the war. Each town through which they passed met them with flags, fanfare and patriotic fervor. A watercolor painting celebrating that event hangs today in the Chenango Museum in Norwich.</p><br>
<p>The canal itself was also utilized for recreation. In the summer months it supported swimming, boating and fishing. In the winter months, after the surface froze over, ice skating and even horse racing became favorite pastimes.</p><br>
<p>Before the Chenango Canal was built, much of the Southern Tier and Central New York was still considered to be frontier. The people there lived as pioneers everywhere lived, a rugged and rustic existence, without the prosperity and possessions enjoyed by much of the rest of the state. The people petitioned for a canal corridor so that they could benefit from such things as efficient clean-burning coal, which had to be shipped from Pennsylvania. Previously people had heated only with wood. After the Chenango, trade increased between New York City, Albany and the Southern Tier. Merchants could market heavier items such as manufactured furniture and the coveted coal-burning stoves. With the canal&#39;s opening, living standards would generally improve.</p><br>
<p>The canal was also a source of local employment. It is believed that Phillip Armour, the millionaire meat packer from Madison County, had first worked as a mule driver walking the Chenango Canal. The countless miles must have built his legs and tenacity, for he eventually quit and walked across the United States. He went to work the gold fields of California. He gradually earned a fortune and ultimately became a shipping magnate- the system he probably learned from his experience on the Chenango. Another driver was Nuel Stever. He was a veteran canal boatman who in 1927, at the age of 76, spoke of his colorful memories living on a Chenango Canal packet boat. His interview was published in The Norwich Sun:</p><br>
<p>When I was five, I began driving canal boat teams on the towpath pulling the boats. Such work was common to boys of that age. I can remember driving a team hour after hour up the towpath for 20 miles when I was five. When I was tired, Id rest part of my weight on the towrope; it seemed to rest me. My father was at the helm. But when I became 10, I took my turn at the helm and a younger brother drove the teams. Whole families lived on the canal boats. I was the oldest of 21 children. Wed go to Oswego to load lumber for Bartletts Mill in Binghamton. Hamilton was the highest point and where the canal froze up first in the fall. Often in the fall as many as 82 boats loaded with lumber would be tied up. When the freeze was just beginning, Bartlett would bring up several teams, hitch them to a bunch of stumps and drag through the canal to break the ice so boats could get lumber to his mill. Canalling was a varied business. For instance, wed take a lot of firkins and get them filled along the way with butter for the merchants. We&#39;d boat grain up to the big stills at Hamilton, Pecksport, Bouckville and Solsville and bring back loads of whiskey which the merchants sold or shipped away. We only did the boating. Whiskey then sold for 25 cents a gallon. It was a busy canal in those days. Three years before the canal closed, about 50 years ago (from 1927), 120 boats carried coal.</p><br>
<h2>Closing</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 1834, Chenango Canal was a necessary link in the interconnecting transportation system in New York, for which the need was well-recognized at that time. Canals had been employed successfully in England to enable the Industrial Revolution. The extraordinary success of the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, completed in 1761, began an era of canal building in that country. The USA, intent on its own development, would follow suit. However, the advent of the Chenango Canal, after having been tied up in the New York Legislature for 19 years, came late in the canal era. By the time of its construction, this type of canal and its technology was already becoming obsolete. The invention of the steam locomotive had already occurred in England in 1811, and the development of a railway system had begun in England by the mid-1820s. The success of those technologies and systems there would allow them to supplant the artificial water-route systems everywhere. The railroads were more durable, more flexible, more efficient, more cost-effective and most importantly- faster than the canals.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the trains finally arrived in Binghamton in the form of the Erie Railroad. It is also noteworthy that the D&H began its existence as a canal company.</p><br>
<p>Despite its success in augmenting the economic development of the Southern Tier and Central New York, the Chenango Canal itself had never been a financial success. After years of competition and decline and continual financial loss, by a vote of the state legislature the Chenango Canal was closed in 1878– just four decades and four years after it was opened. The land and assets were broken up and gradually sold, mostly at auction. Some of the properties were sold to private interests, some were deeded to municipal areas and others were held by the state. Much of the channel was subsequently filled in, and frequently paved over, particularly within the cities and the more populated areas. But some of the more isolated stretches of the canal were simply closed and abandoned.</p><br>
<p>While most of the larger towns, and all of the state, benefited from the triumph of the railroads, many of the smaller villages and hamlets did not. For practically every small settlement that was located on the line of the canal, but which was missed by the railroad, when the canal departed prosperity went with it. Two good illustrations of this are the once-prospering villages of Port Crane and Pecksport, where very little of either one is left today.</p><br>
<p>After 1900, a surviving stretch of the then-closed canal gained notoriety owing to its use to transport contraband through the town of Hamilton. Tobacco, alcohol (during Prohibition), and marijuana were transported along the canal. In order to control this traffic, NY State officials decided to build a checkpoint along its route. Surprisingly, over five million dollars worth of illegal goods were confiscated, from 1900 until about 1930, in what would become one of the most famous water-borne transportation enforcements of that time. Remnants of the stockade which was built can still be seen in the back rooms of the buildings housing the "Flour & Salt Cafe" at 37 Lebanon Street as of 2023, and also the associated stockade on the corner of Pine Street and W. Kendrick Avenue in Hamilton. The Pine Street building was later converted into an asylum.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In many places the canal path became the roadbed for streets, and its path can be traced by the roads which replaced it. These include Binghamtons State Street and Chenango Street, NY Route 5, NY Route 8, NY Route 12 and NY Route 12B. In Utica the canal bed follows next to or underneath NY Route 12B/12, and entered the Erie Canal west of State Street. Portions of the old channel, stone aqueducts, locks, and other structures still remain in place along its route, and are visible in several locations. These include: between Bouckville and Solsville; near Hamilton, NY; north of North Fenton and west of County Road 32; north of Sherburne, west of NY Route 12B, and in the village of Oxford, both on Canal St and the remains of a harbor on North Washington. The only place left with moving water is an area between Woodmans Pond, near the now extinct Pecksport and the aqueduct on Canal Road, just after Bouckville, which was the summit level on the canal. Most of these canal remnants as well as much of the original path are visible or discernible using Google Earth.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal bed continues to exist in Utica alongside the arterial for a half mile just east of the arterial and south of the Burrstone Road overpass. The waters of Nail Creek flow through this section of the canal. The stonework of a lock remains in good shape and can be seen here. The tow path, however, is currently overgrown with brush.</p><br>
<p>Chenango Canal Summit Level is a national historic district located in the vicinity of Bouckville in Madison County, New York, United States. The district contains three contributing structures. It is a five-mile segment of the Chenango Canal constructed between 1834 and 1836. The five mile summit portion is watered, owned and operated by the New York State Canal Corporation as part of the feeder system for the Erie (Barge) Canal about 30 miles north. The contributing structures are the canal prism and adjacent tow path, the remaining portions of the aqueduct that carried the Chenango over the Oriskany Creek, and a pair of stone bridge abutments. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Currently, the community in the Madison area is working to develop a trail along the original towpath. They hope to collect historical artifacts for public display and establish what is left of the Chenango Canal in that area as a Madison County park. The Chenango Canal Corridor Connections trail project is a major project with the vision to link various trails along the general canal and O&W rail corridors from Utica to Binghamton. Calling it the Chenango Connections Corridor, the area&#39;s citizens are now working in conjunction with the NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation; the NYS Canal Corporation; and Parks & Trails New York staff, as part of the HTHP program, to shape a vision and implementation plan for the corridor that spans three counties and multiple villages and towns.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal Prism and Lock 107 at Chenango Forks in Broome County, New York was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Allegheny Cemetery is one of the largest and oldest burial grounds in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is an historic rural cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The non-sectarian, wooded hillside park is located at 4734 Butler Street in the Lawrenceville neighborhood, and bounded by the Bloomfield, Garfield, and Stanton Heights areas. It is sited on the north-facing slope of hills above the Allegheny River.</p><br>
<p>In 1973 the cemetery&#39;s Butler Street Gatehouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and, in 1980, the entire cemetery was listed on the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Incorporated in 1844, the Allegheny Cemetery is the sixth oldest rural cemetery in the United States. It has been expanded over the years and now encompasses 300 acres.</p><br>
<p>Allegheny Cemetery memorializes more than 124,000 people. Some of the oldest graves are of soldiers who fought in the French and Indian War. Their remains were reinterred here, moved from their original burial site at Trinity Cathedral in downtown Pittsburgh. Many notables from the city of Pittsburgh are buried here. The cemetery was among those profiled in the PBS documentary A Cemetery Special.</p><br>
<p>In 1834, three members of the Third Presbyterian Church of Pittsburgh, Dr. J. Ramsey Speer, Stephen Colwell and John Chislett Sr. determined to establish a rural cemetery near Pittsburgh. Dr. Speer later visited several famous rural cemeteries, Mount Auburn Cemetery in Boston, Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, and Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. In 1842 the group selected the 100-acre farm of Colonel Bayard for the site. An Act of Incorporation passed the Pennsylvania Legislature and was signed by Gov. David R. Porter on April 24, 1844.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Barney was selected as the site of a memorial to naval heroes in 1848, and Commodore Joshua Barney and Lt. James L. Parker were reinterred there. On Memorial Day, 1937, a new memorial was unveiled at Allegheny Cemetery, dedicated to the more than 7,000 servicemen buried here.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<p>Gabriel Adams (1790–1864), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1847–49)</p><br>
<p>John Arbuckle (1838–1912), coffee and sugar businessman</p><br>
<p>Marcus E. Baldwin (1863–1929), Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>Joseph Barker (1806–1862), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1850–51)</p><br>
<p>Joshua Barney (1759–1818), Commodore in the United States Navy and American Revolutionary War, War of 1812 veteran (Moved to new site in 1848)</p><br>
<p>Richard Biddle (1796–1847), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Lem Billings (1916–1981), friend and campaigner for President John F. Kennedy</p><br>
<p>William Bingham (1808–1873), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1856–57)</p><br>
<p>James Blackmore (1821–1875), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1868–69 & 1872–75)</p><br>
<p>Francis B. Brewer (1820–1892), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Don Brockett (1930–1995), motion picture and television actor, "Chef Brockett" on the PBS series Mister Rogers&#39; Neighborhood</p><br>
<p>Adam M. Brown (1826–1910), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1901)</p><br>
<p>James W. Brown (1844–1909), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Jared M. Brush (1814–1895), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1869–72)</p><br>
<p>Eben Byers (1880–1932), wealthy American industrialist and socialite noted for his gruesome death caused by consumption of the radioactive patent medicine Radithor.</p><br>
<p>John Caldwell Jr. (1827–1902), George Westinghouse partner and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Louis Semple Clarke (1867–1957), automotive pioneer, founder of the Autocar Company and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>James Wallace Conant (1862–1906), manager of the Schenley Park Casino and Duquesne Gardens, and founder of the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League.</p><br>
<p>Beano Cook (1931–2012), college football commentator</p><br>
<p>Daniel William Cooper (1830–1920), one of the founders of the Sigma Chi Fraternity</p><br>
<p>John Dalzell (1845–1927), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Cornelius Darragh (1809–1854), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Denny (1761–1822), first Mayor of Pittsburgh (1816–17), American Revolutionary War veteran</p><br>
<p>Harmar Denny (1794–1852), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Harmar D. Denny Jr. (1886–1966), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William J. Diehl (1845–1929), politician and Mayor of Pittsburgh (1899–1901)</p><br>
<p>Samuel Diescher (183–1915), engineer who designed the Duquesne Incline and the majority of such projects in Pennsylvania and the US, also designed many industrial projects</p><br>
<p>Harry Allison Estep (1884–1968), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>John Baptiste Ford (1811–1903), industrialist, founder of PPG Industries and Ford City, Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Walter Forward (1786–1852), United States Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>Stephen Foster (1826–1864), songwriter</p><br>
<p>Andrew Fulton (1850–1925), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1884–87)</p><br>
<p>Edward D. Gazzam (1803–1878), doctor, politician, and abolitionist</p><br>
<p>Josh Gibson (1911–1947), baseball great of the Negro leagues</p><br>
<p>Gus Greenlee (1893–1952), Major League Baseball Team Owner</p><br>
<p>George W. Guthrie (1848–1917), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1906–09)</p><br>
<p>John B. Guthrie (1807–1885), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1851–53)</p><br>
<p>Lizzie M. Guthrie (1838–1880), missionary</p><br>
<p>Moses Hampton (1803–1878), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Alexander Hay (1806–1882), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1842–45)</p><br>
<p>General Alexander Hays (1819–1864)</p><br>
<p>William B. Hays (1844–1912), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1903–06)</p><br>
<p>Joseph Horne (1826–1891), founder of Pittsburgh department store Horne&#39;s; this chain closed in 1994</p><br>
<p>Thomas Marshall Howe (1808–1877), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Alfred E. Hunt (1855–1899), co-founder of the company that became Alcoa</p><br>
<p>Thomas Irwin (1785–1870), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Wallace Irwin (1803–1856), US Congressman, Mayor of Pittsburgh (1840–41)</p><br>
<p>William Freame Johnston (1808–1872), Governor of Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>William Kerr (1809–1853), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1846–47)</p><br>
<p>Samuel Kier (1813–1874), pioneer oil refiner</p><br>
<p>Charles H. Kline (1870–1933), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1926–33)</p><br>
<p>Andrew W. Loomis (1797–1873), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>F. T. F. Lovejoy (1854–1932), Industrialist, associate of Andrew Carnegie</p><br>
<p>James Lowry Jr. (1820–1876), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1864–66)</p><br>
<p>William McClelland (1842–1892), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Charles McClure (1804–1846), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>James McCord (1822–1894), millionaire owner of the oldest hattery west of the Allegheny Mountains and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Henry Sellers McKee (1843–1924), millionaire glass manufacturer, founder of Jeannette, Pennsylvania and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Robert McKnight (1820–1885), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William McNair (1880–1948), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1934–36)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Mellon (1813–1908), founder of Mellon Bank</p><br>
<p>Alexander Pollock Moore (1867–1930), publisher of the Pittsburgh Leader and ambassador who was married to actress Lillian Russell</p><br>
<p>James Kennedy Moorhead (1806–1884), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Philip H. Morgan (1825–1900), lawyer, jurist, diplomat</p><br>
<p>General James S. Negley (1826–1901), Civil War general and USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>John Neville (1731–1803), American Revolutionary War veteran and tax collector during the Whiskey Rebellion</p><br>
<p>George Tener Oliver (1848–1919), publisher of the Pittsburgh Gazette Times and Chronicle Telegraph, US Senator</p><br>
<p>Alfred L. Pearson (1838–1903), United States Army officer</p><br>
<p>Henry Kirke Porter (1840–1921), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>James Hay Reed (1853–1927), founding partner, Knox & Reed (now Reed Smith LLP), and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Robert M. Riddle (1812–1858), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1853–54)</p><br>
<p>John Buchanan Robinson (1846–1933), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Robinson Jr. (1785–1868), politician, businessman and militia general</p><br>
<p>Calbraith Perry Rodgers (1879–1912), aviation pioneer</p><br>
<p>James Ross (1762–1847), US Senator</p><br>
<p>Archibald H. Rowand Jr. (1845–1913), Civil War Congressional Medal of Honor Recipient</p><br>
<p>Lillian Russell (1861–1922), singer, actress</p><br>
<p>Ted Sadowski (1936–1993), Major League Baseball Player</p><br>
<p>Richard Mellon Scaife (1932–2014), billionaire supporter of conservative causes, publisher of the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review</p><br>
<p>George Shiras Jr. (1832–1924), United States Supreme Court Associate Justice</p><br>
<p>Jacob B. Sweitzer (1821–1888), Pennsylvania lawyer and soldier. He commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Division/5th Corps of the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Gettysburg</p><br>
<p>Jane Swisshelm (1815–1884), journalist, abolitionist, and women&#39;s rights advocate</p><br>
<p>Adamson Tannehill (1750–1820), Revolutionary War and War of 1812 officer, US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Thaw (1859–1933), Pittsburgh financier and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Harry Kendall Thaw (1871–1947), murderer of architect Stanford White, husband of Evelyn Nesbit</p><br>
<p>James Thomson (1790–1876), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1841–42)</p><br>
<p>Stanley Turrentine (1934–2000), jazz musician</p><br>
<p>Ferdinand E. Volz (1823–1876), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1854–56)</p><br>
<p>Rachel Mellon Walton (1899–2006), member of the prominent Mellon family, centenarian, and prominent Pittsburgh philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Henry A. Weaver (1820–1890), Mayor of Pittsburgh (1857–60)</p><br>
<p>Calvin Wells (1827–1909), industrialist, financier and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Jane McDowell Foster Wiley (1829–1903), wife of Stephen Foster and inspiration for his song "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair"</p><br>
<p>Thomas Williams (1806–1872), Civil War congressman, prosecutor in the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson.</p><br>
<p>The unidentified remains of 54 victims of the 1862 Allegheny Arsenal explosion.</p><br>
<p>The Tennessee Theatre is a movie palace in downtown Knoxville, Tennessee. The theater was built in 1928 in the 1908 Burwell Building, considered Knoxville&#39;s first skyscraper. The theater and Burwell Building were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, and the theater was extensively restored in the early 2000s. The Tennessee Theatre currently focuses on hosting performing arts events and classic films, and is home to the Knoxville Opera and the Knoxville Symphony Orchestra. The theater is managed by AC Entertainment.</p><br>
<h2>Performances</h2><br>
<p>The Tennessee Theatre offers a wide range of performing arts events and classic films to the public. The theater is managed by AC Entertainment and is home to the Knoxville Opera, and the Knoxville Symphony Orchestra.</p><br>
<h3>Broadway at the Tennessee</h3><br>
<p>After the failed "Broadway in Knoxville" series at the Knoxville Civic Coliseum finally came to an end due to a lack of profit, quality Broadway-style entertainment was transferred to the Tennessee Theatre for a 2008-2009 season. The series, now presented by the Tennessee Theatre, was renamed Broadway at the Tennessee and kicked off with Fred Ebbs Chicago. Productions at The Tennessee Theatre included Movin Out, Hairspray, Jesus Christ Superstar, Sweeney Todd, and Stomp.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 1790s, the lot now occupied by the Burwell building was home to a two-story log structure where the classes of Blount College &mdash; the forerunner of the University of Tennessee &mdash; were first held.</p><br>
<p>Clay Brown Atkin funded many buildings construction and was claimed to be the biggest mantel manufacturer in the world. Atkin set his attention on the Knoxville Banking & Trust Building, a 10-story steel frame building on the corner of Gay Street and Clinch Avenue. The building was completed in 1908, and at the time it was Knoxvilles tallest building and first considered a skyscraper. The Knoxville Banking & Trust Building became a prestigious address for Knoxville professionals, and in 1917, Atkin bought the building and honorarily named it after his wife, Mary Burwell (1871-1949). Measuring 166 ft in height, the Burwell was Knoxville&#39;s tallest building until the completion of the Holston in 1913.</p><br>
<p>The theater first opened on October 1, 1928, and with about 2,000 seats in the auditorium, it was billed as "Knoxvilles Grand Entertainment Palace". It was designed by Chicago architects Graven & Mayger in the Spanish-Moorish style, although the design incorporates elements from all parts of the world: Czechoslovakian crystals in the French-style chandeliers, Italian terrazzo flooring in the Grand Lobby, and Oriental influences in the carpet and drapery patterns. It was built by George A. Fuller, another Chicago native, who also built the Flatiron Building in New York City. Tennessee Enterprises hired the George A. Fuller Company because of his prominent works in New York City, and his work on the Tennessee proved Fullers expertise. By this point, the theater was turning out to be an almost all-Chicago project, and Fuller broke ground on November 1, 1927. On Christmas Day the News-Sentinel reported that the theater was pouring concrete. The theater was one of the first public buildings in Knoxville to have air conditioning, and it also featured a Wurlitzer organ.</p><br>
<p>During its heyday, the theater played host to a few world movie premieres, including So This is Love (1953), and the adaptation of James Agees All the Way Home (1963). After a refurbishment in 1966, the theaters seating capacity was reduced to 1,545.</p><br>
<p>The theater changed owners several times over its life, and eventually closed for the first time in 1977. Thereafter it was open and closed intermittently for the remainder of the late 1970s. It was purchased by local radio company Dick Broadcasting in 1981, who started a renovation effort to prepare it for the 1982 World&#39;s Fair. On April 1, 1982, the theater was placed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>The Historic Tennessee Theatre Foundation was formed in 1996 and Dick Broadcasting donated the theater to the non-profit. It was designated "The Official State Theatre of Tennessee." In 2001, the Foundation announced a campaign to completely restore and renovate the theater. The $29.3 million project was funded through public and private donations with the help of $6.3 million in tax credits. The theater closed for renovations in June 2003 to completely restore it to its original state.</p><br>
<p>Renovations included expansions of the stage depth via a cantilever two stories above State street, which accommodated larger and more elaborate productions, a custom orchestra shell to enhance the acoustics of the new larger stage, an enlarged orchestra pit, upgraded dressing room facilities, modernization of the lighting, rigging, and other theatrical equipment, the installations of elevators, and a new marquee. The restorations included new carpets, draperies, and lighting fixtures that duplicated the original designs, and historically accurate restoration of all plaster and paint surfaces throughout the lobby, lounges, foyers, and the auditorium. Integration of acoustic treatments into the restored auditorium and lobby, and a substantially improved exterior sound isolation system were included in the restoration design. Seating capacity is now at 1,645 patrons.</p><br>
<p>The design team for this renovation effort was led by McCarty Holsaple Architects of Knoxville, Tennessee and included Westlake Reed Leskosky Architects of Cleveland, Ohio (now DLR Group).</p><br>
<p>The theater reopened on January 14, 2005 and had a near sold-out season. In 2013 the Tennessee Theatre announced the sale of its one millionth ticket since the restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Mighty Wurlitzer</h2><br>
<p>The Wurlitzer was installed in the Tennessee Theatre at the time of its opening in 1928. It was built by the Rudolph Wurlitzer Company in North Tonawanda, New York, and cost about $50,000 at the time.</p><br>
<p>The organist at the Tennessee is always advertised as the star of the show, and the first organist was Miss Jean Wilson, whose name appeared on the marquee alongside early films. Later House Organists include William T. Snyder and current performer Freddie Brabson.</p><br>
<p>In October 2000, virtually the entire organ was shipped to Reno, Nevada, to master organ rebuilder Ken Crome, who restored the instrument piece by piece. Artisans and craftsmen returned the organ&#39;s appearance to its original 1928 color scheme and design. The chambers on either side of the stage, which houses the pipes, were replastered to fully ensure the protection and preservation of the restored instrument.</p><br>
<p>The Wurlitzer returned to Knoxville in August 2001 and was re-installed over the course of the next month. Theater organist Lyn Larsen was involved in the configuration and tonal regulation of the organ, and was the first to publicly perform it at a gala concert on October 1, 2001.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Portions of the 1999 film October Sky were filmed in and around Knoxville, and the facade of the theater can be seen during a scene in which the main characters go to the movies.</p><br>
<p>The 2017 film The Last Movie Star starring Burt Reynolds, Clark Duke, Ariel Winter and Chevy Chase was mostly filmed in Knoxville. Several scenes were filmed inside the Tennessee Theatre grand lobby, portrayed as a fictional grand hotel lobby in the film.</p><br>
